Lexical usage

This usually involves:

• comparatives, as long as the first term of comparison is not a constituent in the genitive or dative;
• adjectives of difference (ἄλλος, ἕτερος, διαφέρων), e.g. ἕτερον τὸ ἡδὺ τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ ;
• superlatives, if a comparison is being made ('the most ... compared to ...);
• multiplicative adjectives in -πλοῦς or -πλάσιος.

Note also the following expressions:

• ἡ προτεραία [sc. ἡμέρα] τῆς δίκης ‘the day before the trial’;
• ἡ ὑστεραία [sc. ἡμέρα] τῆς ἑορτῆς ‘the day after the feast’.

200146 genitive,comparative standard of comparison,comparison
149 Genitive: place as satellite satellite The genitive signals a place as a satellite. This is mostly a matter of epic and poetic language.

4

ἐσχάτης δ’ ὁρῶ | πυρᾶς νεώρη βόστρυχον τετμημένον

‘’ (Soph. El. 900-901)

Lexical usage

Many adverbs of place are in origin genitives: ποῦ; ‘where?’, αὐτοῦ ‘there’, οὐδαμοῦ ‘nowhere’. The genitive of place may, in its turn, accompany an adverb of place (although when it does so it is often interpreted as a genitive of totality).

Historical background

This usage seems to have its origin in the genitive of totality, i.e. the genitive of the whole; the adverbs of place, however, seem to have originated from the genitive of source (Brucale 2014). 200149 genitive location
151 Genitive: source as (second) object satellite,indirect object The genitive signals a source as a (second) object with a verb of separation; often with compound with ἀπο- and ἐξ-.

1

ἄπεχε τῆς βοὸς τὸν ταῦρον.

‘Keep the bull away from the cow!’ (Aesch. Ag. 1125-1126)

Lexical usage

- as as first object: ἀπέχω 'to be distant (from)', ἀπορέω 'to lack'; δέομαι 'to ask (of), request', ἐκπίπτω 'to fall out (of)', σπανίζω 'to lack', στέρομαι 'to be robbed (of)'; ἀπέχομαι 'to refrain (from)', φείδομαι 'to spare (someone)'; εἴκω ‘wijken’;
- als tweede voorwerp: ἀπαλλάττω 'to free (from)', ἀπέχω 'to keep away (from)', ἀποτρέπω 'to turn away (from)', εἴργω 'to keep away (from)', ἐλευθερόω 'to free (from)', στερέω, ἀποστερέω, στερίσκω 'to rob (of)', χωρίζω 'to separate (from)', ψιλόω 'to rob (of)'; κωλύω 'to prevent', παύω 'to make stop' 200151 genitive,prefix ἀπο-,prefix ἐκ- source
162 Genitive: time frame as satellite satellite,noun phrase The genitive, usually accompanied by a modifier, signals a time frame as a satellite with a telic verb or adverb.

2

καὶ ἐγὼ τοιαῦτα πεπυσμένος τῆς ἐπιούσης νυκτὸς διέπλευσα Μέγαράδε.

‘When I was made aware of that, I sailed to Megara over the course of the night.’ (Lys. 12.7)

Lexical usage

Sometimes this involves expressions which are essentially fixed, in which the time frame is not always equally clear: ἡμέρᾱς ‘by day’, νυκτός ‘by night’, μεσημβρίᾱς ‘at midday’, δείλης ‘in the afternoon’, ἑσπέρᾱς ‘in the evening’, θέρους ‘in the summer’, χειμῶνος ‘in the winter’, ἦρος ‘in the spring’, ὀπώρᾱς ‘in the autumn’, τοῦ λοιποῦ ‘in the future’ etc. 200162 genitive timeframe,telic aspect
164 Genitive: frequency as satellite satellite The genitive signals a frequency as a satellite, often depending on an adverb expressing the frequency. Usually the distributive article is present.

2

δραχμὴν γὰρ τῆς ἡμέρας ἕκαστος ἐλάμβανεν

‘For everyone earnt a drachma a day.’ (Thuc. 7.27.2 ) 200164 genitive frequency
166 Genitive: property as (agreeing) object The genitive, often a substantivally used participle, signals a property as an object agreeing with another object.

4

ἐμὲ μὲν οὖν, ἔφη, γράφε τῶν ἱππεύειν ὑπερεπιθῡμούντων

‘’ (Xen. Cyrop. 4.3.21)

Lexical usage

This genitive is used with a number of verbs which take an object in the genitive, and sometimes also with verbs which normally take an agreeing constituent in the nominative or the accusative. 200166 genitive,agreeing constituent property
170 Dative: place as satellite satellite The dative signals a place as a satellite:

• [in prose] if the place is a proper noun;
• [in poetry] also if the place is a common noun.

3

ὁ μὲν δὴ Θησέως σηκὸς Ἀθηναίοις ἐγένετο ὕστερον ἢ Μῆδοι Μαραθῶνι ἔσχον

‘The grave of Theseus was built by Athenians after the Medes landed at Marathon.’ (Paus. 1.17.6)

Lexical usage

Specific place names

Ἀθήναι or Ἀθήνησι(ν) ‘in Athens’ (on inscriptions), Δελφοῖς ‘in Delphi’, Ἰσθμοῖ ‘on the Isthmus’, Μεγαροῖ ‘in Megara’, Ὀλυμπίᾱσι(ν) ‘in Olympia’, Πλαταιαῖς ‘in Plataiai’, Πῡθοῖ ‘in Pytho’, Σαλαμῖνι ‘in Salamis’ etc. The same place names also occur with ἐν, for instance ἐν Ὀλυμπίᾳ and ἐν Πλαταιαῖς. With names of countries and places ἐν is more common than the simple dative in Attic prose.
As a rule, the names of Attic demes are in the locative, for example Φαληροῖ, Θορικοῖ or Μαραθῶνι. Some names of demes use ἐν, for example ἐν Κοίλῃ or ἐν Μαραθῶνι.

Common nouns (only in poetry)

This often concerns parts of the body (e.g. θῡμῷ or καρδίῃ in Homer). If the word in the dative is a person, it is usually in the plural. Besides parts of the body, common names denoting a physical location (e.g. αἰθέρι ‘in the air’, οὔρεσι(ν) ‘in the mountains’, πόντῳ ‘on sea’) or social gatherings (e.g. ἀγορῇ ‘in the council’, μάχῃ ‘in battle’) are also put in the dative.

Historical background

Even in Homer the use of the dative without a preposition to signal a place is not very common. In classical Greek the preposition ἐν + dative definitely becomes the norm. 200170 694 dative location,toponym
173 Dative: direction as satellite satellite The dative signals a direction (and more specifically a destination that has been reached) as a satellite, albeit mainly in poetry.

3

αἱματόεσσα δὲ χεὶρ πεδίῳ πέσε

‘His bloody hand fell to the ground.’ (Hom. Il. 5.82)

Lexical usage

This dative is used with verbs of motion such as βάλλω ‘to throw’, ἕζομαι ‘to sit down’, κλίνω ‘to lean’, ὀρέγω ‘to reach out’, πελάζω ‘to approach’, πήγνυμι ‘to fix in’, πίπτω ‘to fall’, ῥίπτω ‘to throw’ or τίθημι ‘to place’.

Syntactic usage

Prose writers tended to use a preposition (εἰς or πρός) with the accusative.

Historical background

The adverb χαμαί ‘on(to) the ground’, in origin a fossilised locative, can also express direction. Since it can be used in combination with the same verbs it comes under this rule.

Frequency

In theory, this construction is typically Homeric, although it also occurs in Attic poets such as the tragedians. 200173 dative location,direction,telic aspect
175 Dative: direction as object argument The dative signals a direction as an object with verbs of motion, particularly in poetry.

4

ὁ γὰρ παλαιὸς λόγος εὖ ἔχει, ὡς ὅμοιον ὁμοίῳ ἀεὶ πελάζει

‘’ (Plat. Sym. 195b)

Syntactic usage

In contrast with the accusative the dative always expresses a limited, brief movement.
In prose the word in the dative is usually animate, adding to the plausibility of analysing this dative as a dative of interest. 200175 dative direction,animacy
178 Dative: time as satellite satellite The dative signals a point in time as a satellite.

2

γρηγορεῖτε οὖν, ὅτι οὐκ οἴδατε ποίᾳ ὥρᾳ ὁ Κύριος ὑμῶν ἔρχεται

‘Watch, therefore, for you do not know in which hour your Lord comes.’ ( Matthew 24.42)

Lexical usage

The word in the dative can be:

• a lexeme indicating time (e.g. ἡμέρᾳ ‘on the day’, ἔτει ‘in the year’);
• an annual festival (e.g. Παναθηναίοις ‘during the Panathenaea’).

200178 dative time
180 Dative: time frame as satellite satellite The dative signals a time frame as a satellite

3

ἔλαβε δὲ καὶ τὰς Ἀθήνας ὀλίγῳ χρόνῳ.

‘In a short time he took Athens.’ (Plut. Alc. 37.3) 200180 dative timeframe,telic aspect
182 Dative: receiver as second object indirect object The dative signals a receiver as a second object, with predicates expressing delivery or communication.

1

ἰατρῷ καὶ νομικῷ τὴν ἀλήθειαν λέγε

‘Tell the truth to your doctor and your lawyer.’ (Aesop )

Lexical usage

Verbs of delivery

δίδωμι ‘to give (to)’, ἐπιτρέπω ‘to entrust (to)’, πέμπω ‘to send (to)’, προσφέρω ‘to carry (to)’ etc.

Verbs of communication

ἐπιτάττω ‘to impose (a task) on’, κελεύω [Hom. + dat.; Att. + acc.] ‘to impose (a command) on’, πιστεύω ‘to entrust (something) as a task to’ etc.

Syntactic usage

Both the first object (inanimate, in the accusative) and the second object (animate, in the dative) can be used in the nominative as the subject of a passive construction.

Varia

In the traditional terminology a receiving (second) object is generally referred to as an indirect object. 200182 dative receiver,verbs of saying,verbs of giving
185 Dative: beneficiary or malefactive as satellite satellite The dative signals a beneficiary or malefactive as a satellite with verbs which have no sense of advantage or disadvantage.

1

τοῖς ἑαυτοῦ πρᾷος ἴσθι

‘Be mild towards your relatives.’ (Solon ) 200185 dative beneficiary / malefactive,animacy
188 Dative: beneficiary/malefactive as a modifier modifier,noun phrase The dative signals a beneficiary or a malefactive as a modifier.

4

σοὶ δέ, ἔφη, ὦ Γωβρύα, δώσω ἄνδρα τῇ θυγατρί

‘’ (Xen. Cyrop. 8.4.24) 200188 dative beneficiary / malefactive
192 Dative: experiencer as disjunct disjunct The dative form of a personal pronoun in the first or second person (μοι, ἡμῖν, σοι [or τοί], ὑμῖν) signals an experiencer as a disjunct. The speaker assumes that the person in question takes an interest in the state of affairs.

1

ὦ μῆτερ ὡς καλός μοι ὁ πάππος

‘Mother, how handsome is grandfather!’ (Xen. Cyrop. 1.3.2)

Translation tips

Usually it is better not to translate the so-called ethical dative.

Varia

The so-called ethical dative also occurs in the third person (οἱ, αὐτῷ, αὐτῇ etc.), but this is very rare. 200192 dative experiencer
197 Dative: object indirect object,passivization The dative signals an object with a large number of verbs. The use of the dative is usually easy to grasp, because the object expresses roles such as beneficiary, companion or instrument – semantic roles which are also usually expressed with the dative as satellites.

1

ἀνάγκῃ οὐδὲ θεοὶ μάχονται

‘Even the gods do not fight necessity.’ (Zenob. 1.85)

Lexical usage

Beneficiary or malefactive

- With a beneficiary object: βοηθέω ‘to help’, ὑπηρετέω ‘to serve’, ἐπικουρέω ‘to come to the aid of’, πείθομαι ‘to obey, believe (in)’, πιστεύω ‘to trust (in)’, τῑμωρέω ‘to aid, avenge (someone)’, χαρίζομαι ‘to gratify’ etc.
- With a malefactive object: ἀπειθέω ‘to disobey’, ἀπειλέω ‘to threaten’, ἀπιστέω ‘to disbelieve’, ἐπιτίθεμαι ‘to attack’, μάχομαι ‘to fight (against)’, μέμφομαι ‘to reproach’, ὀργίζομαι ‘to be angry (with)’, πολεμέω ‘to wage ware, fight (against)’, φθονέω ‘to envy, be jealous (of)’, χαλεπαίνω ‘to be angry (with)’ etc.

Companion

ἀκολουθέω ‘to accompany’, ἕπομαι ‘to follow’, κοινωνέω ‘to have (something [gen.]) in common (with [dat.])’, πλησιόζω ‘to approach, to be friends (with)’, διαλέγομαι ‘to have a dialogue, conversation (with)’, ἐρίζω ‘to quarrel (with)’, κεράννυμι ‘to mix (with)’, μείγνυμι ‘to mix (with)’, ὁμιλέω ‘to consort, associate (with)’, ὁμολογέω ‘to agree (with)’, ὁμονομέω ‘to be of one mind (with)’, σπένδομαι ‘to make a treaty (with)’ etc.

Miscellaneous

χράομαι ('to use'), χαίρω ('to rejoice in'), ἔοικα ‘to resemble’.

Syntactic usage

The predicate is usually intransitive, occasionally transitive. From Herodotus onwards an object in the dative can be converted to the subject of a passive construction. Previously this was not possible.

Historical background

Verbs of ruling (particularly in Homer)

ἀνάσσω ‘to be ruler (of)’, ἄρχω ‘to rule (over)’, βασιλεύω ‘to be king (of)’, ἡγέομαι ‘to lead’, ἡγεμονεύω ‘to be leader (of)’, κρατέω ‘to rule (over)’ etc. 200197 dative patient,beneficiary / malefactive,companion,instrument,verbs of ruling
202 Dative: possessor as predicate NP predicate NP The dative signals a possessor as a predicate NP with copular verbs.

1

καὶ ἴσαι αἱ ψῆφοι αὐτῷ ἐγένοντο

‘He received the same number of votes.’ (Aeschin. 3.252)

Lexical usage

Some examples of copular verbs include εἰμί ‘to be’, γίγνομαι 'to become' and ὑπάρχω ‘to be’. In poetry words such as ἔφυν ‘to be (by nature)’ also occur.

Translation tips

The Greek dative is translated as the subject of a sentence. If the verb is εἰμί or ὑπάρχω ‘to be’, translate with ‘to have’; if the verb is γίγνομαι ‘to become’ the translation ‘to receive/acquire’ is preferable.

Syntactic usage

In this construction the possessor is invariably animate and usually a pronoun. The possessor is the topic and thus already known to the speakers. The subject, which indicates the entity which is being 'possessed', is invariably inanimate and usually indefinite. This subject is the focus and thus represents new information for the listener.
The construction εἰμί + dative is distinguished from ἔχω + accusative by the fact that the relationship of possession does not necessarily imply physical ownership.

Historical background

The frequency of the construction involving a dative and a copula gradually decreases: in Homer it occurs very frequently, but in a later period much less so. Its functions are gradually taken over by ἔχω with an accusative. 200202 dative possessor
203 Dative: object with impersonal verbs indirect object The dative signals an experiencer as a first object with impersonal verbs expressing emotions, necessity or need.

1

οὐδ' ἐξῆν ἑκάστῳ τρέφειν οὐδὲ παιδεύειν ὡς ἐβούλετο τὸν υἱόν.

‘’ (Plut. Lyc. 16.4)

Lexical usage

The dative of the experiencer is virtually always animate and is used with impersonal verbs such as δεῖ ‘it is necessary’, δοκεῖ ‘it seems’, ἔξεστι ‘it is possible, it is permitted’, μέλει ‘it is a care’, μεταμέλει ‘it is a regret’, μέτεστι ‘it is permitted, it is possible’, πρέπει or προσήκει ‘it is fitting, it is proper’ and φαίνεται ‘it seems’.
The dative with δοκέω ‘I give the impression’ and ἔοικα ‘I seem’ is also sometimes regarded as a dative of the experiencer.

Syntactic usage

The verbs δεῖ, μέτεστι, μέλει, μεταμέλει and προσήκει take an (inanimate) genitive of the source besides the (animate) dative of the experiencer. 200203 dative experiencer,animacy,impersonality,verbs of depriving
204 Dative: experiencer as satellite satellite,disjunct The dative signals an experiencer as a satellite or disjunct. It concerns a person who makes a judgement or adopts a point of view about the state of affairs.

2

πᾶς δὲ τόπος τοῖς ἐρῶσι θάλαμος.

‘Any place can be a bed for those who are in love.’ (Ach. Tat. 5.5,16)

Lexical usage

The dative word is often a substantivally used participle of verbs of coming, going or judging. 200204 dative experiencer
209 Dative: companion as modifier modifier,noun phrase The dative signals a companion as a modifier.

4

ἀκόλουθος τοίνυν ὁ νῦν λόγος ἐστί μοι τῷ τότε ῥηθέντι

‘’ (Dem. 15.7)

Lexical usage

This dative is used with nouns of:

• companionship or intercourse, sometimes associated with motion (ἀκόλουθος ‘companion’);
• intrinsic reciprocity (ὅμιλος ‘intercourse’).

200209 dative companion
216 Dative: instrument as satellite satellite The dative signals an instrument or tool as a satellite.

1

ἐλαίῳ πῦρ σβεννύεις.

‘You are quenching fire with oil.’ (Plut. prov. 22) 200216 dative instrument
223 Dative: agent as satellite satellite The dative signals an agent as a satellite with a passive predicate (mainly verbal adjectives in -τέος in the perfect stem, particularly the participle).

1

πῶς οὐκ τὴν εἰρήνην ποιητέον ἡμῖν;

‘Why should it not be our duty to secure peace?’ (Andoc. 3.16)

Frequency

In poetry, specifically in epic poetry, the dative of agent occurs more frequently than in prose. Thus Homer uses the dative of agent with a limited range of verbs, in particular δάμνημι ‘bedwingen’. 200223 380 dative,verbal adjective in -τέος agent
229 Dative: manner as satellite satellite,noun phrase The dative signals a manner as a satellite.

1

παντὶ τρόπῳ ἄμεινόν ἐστιν δίκαιον εἶναι ἢ ἄδικον

‘It is certainly better to be righteous than unrighteous.’ (Plat. Rep. 357b)

Lexical usage

Many datives of manner are almost adverbs:
TBX τῇ ἀληθείᾳ 'in reality'
βίᾳ 'with force, against one's will'
δημοσίᾳ καὶ ἰδίᾳ 'in public and in private' (publice et privatim)
δίκῃ 'rightly'
δόλῳ 'cunningly'
(τῷ) ἔργῳ 'indeed'
ἡσυχῇ 'calmly, quietly'
κομιδῇ 'wholly, definitely'
κόσμῳ 'in an orderly way'
κύκλῳ 'round about'
(τῷ) λόγῳ 'in word'
τῷ ὄντι 'indeed'
ὀργῇ 'angrily'
προφάσει 'ostensibly'
σῑγῇ, σιωπῇ 'in silence'
σπουδῇ 'hastily; diligently'
φυγῇ 'in flight'

Syntactic usage

This dative is usually accompanied by a quantifying modifier. 200229 dative manner,quantifiability
230 Dative: instrument as disjunct disjunct The dative signals an instrument as a disjunct. Only the context can decide whether the dative in question is a disjunct or a satellite. 4

σοφίᾳ γὰρ ἔκ του κλεινὸν ἔπος πέφανται ...

‘’ (Soph. Ant. 620) 200230 dative manner
235 Dative: cause as satellite satellite The dative signals a cause as a satellite.

1

κτήσει, ἔφη, ἀγαθῶν οἱ εὐδαίμονες εὐδαίμονες

‘For, he said, fortunate people are fortunate due to the possession of good things.’ (Plat. Sym. 205a) 200235 dative cause,verbs of feeling
239 Dative: goal as satellite satellite Sometimes the dative signals a satellite or goal in the case of abstract nouns which indicate a situation, mainly in Attic inscriptions.

3

οἳ δ᾽ οὔ πω πείθοντο, λόχῳ δ᾽ ὑπεθωρήσσοντο

‘They did not believe him, and armed themselves for an ambush.’ (Hom. Il. 18.513)

Historical background

Since some forms of the infinitive (specifically the suffix -σθαι) continue old datives, the use of this type of infinitive as an adverbial of goal could, from a historical perspective, be regarded as a dative of goal. 200239 dative goal
240 Dative: reference as satellite satellite The dative signals a reference as a satellite.

2

φύσει σοφὸς μὲν οὐδείς

‘Nobody is wise by nature.’ (Aristot. Nic. Eth. 1143b)

Syntactic usage

The difference relative to instrument, place, standard of comparison and cause is not great, as the following examples show: ἰσχύω τῷ σώματι ‘to be strong in body’, γιγνώσκω τινὰ τῷ σχήματι ‘to know someone by sight’, κρίνω τινὰ τοῖς λόγοις ‘to judge someone by his words’, ὑπερβάλλω τινὰ ἀρετῇ ‘to surpass someone in virtue’, διαφέρω ἀνδρείᾳ ‘to differ in courage’.

Historical background

The dative becomes very frequent in this construction in the Koine of the Roman period (Jannaris 1897:330). 200240 dative reference
241 Dative: property or manner agreeing argument The dative signals a property or means as an object agreeing with another object.

3

ἡ δὲ δίκην ἐπεκάθητο τῷ ταύρῳ πλεούσης νεώς, ὥσπερ ἱστίῳ τῷ πέπλῳ χρωμένη.

‘Thus she sat on the bull as if on a sailing ship; she used her robe as a sail.’ (Ach. Tat. 1.12)

Lexical usage

This especially concerns verbs such as χράομαί (τινί) τινί ‘to use (something) as...’. 200241 dative,cardinal
292 Genitive: possessor as predicate NP predicate NP The genitive signals a possessor as a predicate NP.

1

Βοιωτῶν ἡ πόλις ἔσται

‘The city will fall into the hands of the Boeotians.’ (Lys. 12.58)

Lexical usage

The genitive of the possessor as a predicate NP with εἰμί may indicate a person whose nature, duty, habit etc. it is to do that which is expressed by the infinitive which is the subject of the verb.

Translation tips

It is often preferable to use a more specific verb than 'to be' when translating: 'to belong to' 'to be suitable for' etc.

Syntactic usage

In this construction the possessor is generally human and definite. The possessor is the focus and thus represents new information for the listener. The subject is the topic and is already known.
A possessive pronoun may stand in the place of the genitive.
The construction εἰμί + genitive is distinguished from εἰμί + dative by the fact that the possessive relationship is always granted by nature or by a social convention (through legal ownership, for instance, or moral duty).

Historical background

The genitive with a copula is the least frequent of the predicative constructions which indicate possession. However, as a consequence of its specialised semantic force it remains stable throughout the history of the language (Benvenuto 2014). 200292 genitive possessor
300 Genitive: reference as satellite satellite,indirect object The genitive signals reference as a satellite.

3

τί δὲ ἵππων οἴει;

‘What's your opinion of horses?’ (Plat. Rep. 459b)

Lexical usage

This genitive is used with the same type of verbs as περί with the genitive, namely with certain uerba dicendi and uerba sentiendi. 200300 genitive reference,verbs of perception,verbs of saying
301 Genitive: exclamation (cause) extra-clausal constituent The genitive signals an exclamation, usually preceded by an interjection.

2

ἰὼ ἰὼ δυστόνων κακῶν, ἄναξ

‘What terrible suffering, my king!’ (Aesch. Seven 1005)

Lexical usage

Common interjections include φεῦ and οἴμοι ‘alas!’.

Syntactic usage

In tragedy the genitive after οἴμοι or ὤμοι ‘alas!’ refers to the second or third person. For the first person the nominative is used.
According to most grammars (including Rijksbaron and others 2003) this genitive has a causative role. 200301 genitive cause,exclamation
302 Genitive: standard of comparison as object indirect object The genitive signals an object with verbs indicating care, order or rule, as well as verbs of 'excelling' and 'being inferior to' (cf. the use of the genitive for the expression of a basis of comparison).

1

γλώσσης μάλιστα πανταχοῦ πειρῶ κρατεῖν

‘Especially try to keep your tongue in control at all times.’ (Men. Mon. 80)

Lexical usage

Verbs of excelling or being inferior to

- διαφέρω ‘to differ (from)’
- Many of these verbs are derived from or compounds with comparatives (e.g. πλεονεκτέω ‘to have the advantage (over)’, ἡττάομαι, ἐλαττόομαι, μειόομαι ‘to be worse (than)’, ὑστερέω ‘to be later (than)’).
- Many verbs of 'excelling’ are compounds with a preposition, including:

• προ- (e.g. προαιρέομαι ‘choose (over)’, προέχω ‘to be better (than)’);
• περι- (e.g. περιγίγνομαι ‘to excel’, περίειμι ‘to be better (than)’);
• ὑπερ- (e.g. ὑπερβαίνω, ὑπερβάλλω ‘to excel’, ὑπερέχω ‘to be better (than)’).

Verbs of ruling

ἄρχω ‘to rule (over)’, βασιλεύω ‘to be king (of)’, δεσπόζω ‘to be master (of)’, ἡγέομαι ‘to lead’ [+ dat. ‘to show the way (to)’], κρατέω ‘to be master (of)’ [+ acc. ‘to defeat’], στρατηγέω ‘to lead’, τυραννέω ‘to be monarch (of)’
- often compounds with prefixes such as ἐπι- (e.g. ἐπιστατέω ‘to be ruler of’).

Verbs of caring

- ἀμελέω ‘to neglect’, ἐπιμελέομαι ‘to care (for)’, φροντίζω ‘to be concerned (with)’, ὀλιγωρέω ‘to ignore’.

Varia

Note that a standard of comparison in the genitive always implies an unequal relationship. If the two parts of the comparison are equal the dative is used. 200302 genitive,prefix προ-,prefix ὑπερ-,prefix περι- standard of comparison
303 Genitive: source as modifier modifier,obligatory attribute,noun phrase The genitive signals a source as a modifier.

4

οὐ γὰρ τοῦτ’ ἦν εὐδαιμονία, ὡς ἔοικε, κακοῦ ἀπαλλαγή

‘’ (Plat. Gorg. 478c)

Lexical usage

This genitive is used with a noun of motion or separation (to remove, to rob, to differ, to yield, to descend from etc.), especially compounds with ἐκ- and ἀπο-. This genitive has a strong affinity with objects in the genitive. 200303 genitive source
305 modifier,noun phrase 4 200305 accusative space, distance, and path
318 Genitive: value/price as modifier modifier,noun phrase The genitive signals a value or price as a modifier with a noun.

3

ἱερὰ τριῶν ταλάντων

‘offerings worth three talents’ (Lys. 30.20) 200318 genitive value / price
320 Genitive: reference as disjunct disjunct The genitive signals a reference as a disjunct, to express the topic of an utterance.

4

ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τεχνῶν

‘’ (Plat. Charm. 165d)

Syntactic usage

This genitive is usually placed at the beginning of a construction. 200320 genitive reference,theme
335 Genitive: adjective complement adjective complement The genitive signals a complement with an adjective in a large number of semantic roles (and often virtually independent of semantic roles).

1

ὁ γὰρ τὸ σπέρμα παρασχών, οὗτος τών φύντων αἴτιος

‘For he who supplies the seed is responsible for the harvest.’ (Dem. 18.159)

Lexical usage

The following are some common semantic roles:
Totality

With adjectives of:

• partaking: μέτοχος ‘partaking’;
• touching or desiring: δύσερως ‘in love’;
• remembering: ἀμελής ‘careless’, ἐπιλήσμων ‘forgetful’, μνήμων 'remembering’;
• perception: compounds of -ήκοος (e.g. κατήκοος ‘obedient’, συνήκοος ‘hearing together’);
• ability or suitability: ἱκανός ‘suitable’, δυνατός ‘capable’, οἷός τ’ (εἰμί) ‘(I am) capable’, compounds in -ικός of active verbs (διδασκαλικός ‘capable of teaching’, πρᾱκτικός ‘capable of doing’).

Origin

• With adjectives of motion or separation
  (to remove, to rob, to give way, to originate from etc.) ἁγνός ‘pure’, γυμνός ‘naked’, ἐλεύθερος ‘free’, ἐνδεής, ἐλλιπής, ἐπιδεής ‘needy’, ἔρημος ‘desolate’, κενός ‘empty’, μόνος ‘only’, ὀρφανός ‘bereft’ etc.
• With Compounds with a privative alpha, such as ἄπαστος ‘fasting’, ἄπειρος ‘inexperienced’, ἄψαυστος ‘untouched’ etc.

Material, contents

With adjectives meaning full of.
ἔμπλεως, μεστός, πλέως, πλήρης (also + dat.), σύμπλεως ‘full (of)’, etc.

Reference (~ accusative, dative)

In expressions of perception, emotion or mental activity: ἀγύμναστος ‘untrained (in)’, ἀήθης ‘not used (to)’, ἀπαίδευτος ‘uninstructed (in)’, ἄπειρος ‘inexperienced (in)’, ἔμπειρος ‘experienced (in)’, ὀψιμαθής ‘late in learning’, τρίβων ‘practised (in)’, τυφλός ‘blind (to)’, φιλομαθής ‘curious (about)’ etc.

Possessor

In expressions of possession and rule: ἀκρατής ‘not having power (over)’, ἴδιος ‘peculiar (to)’, κύριος ‘having power (over)’ etc.

Place (~ dative)

Especially in poetry with ἐναντίος ‘opposite’ and a few expressions of proximity or approach.

Cause (~ dative)

This involves adjectives expressing a (positive or negative) emotion or responsibility (αἴτιος, ὑπεύθῡνος). E.g. εὐδαίμων τοῦ τρόπου καὶ τῶν λόγων 'a happy man, with respect to both his way of life and his words'.

Value or price

ἄξιος ‘worthy’, ἀντάξιος ‘worth as much’, ἀνάξιος ‘unworthy’, ἀξιόχρεως ‘sufficient’ etc. 200335 genitive possessor,cause,source,reference,totality,material / contents,value / price,companion,neutral semantics
342 Accusative: cognate object direct object,passivization The accusative can signal an object with intransitive verbs, if the object is:

• etymologically related to the predicate, i.e. if they contain the same stem;
• semantically related to the predicate, i.e. if they express the same meaning;
• a neuter adjective or pronoun used as a substantive.

1

χαλεπὸν πολλὰς ὁδοὺς ἅμα τοῦ βίου βαδίζειν

‘In life it is hard to follow many paths at the same time.’ (Sent. Pyth. 114)

Syntactic usage

The accusative of the cognate object can become a subject in the nominative in a passive construction. It is hard to tell in how far a cognate object should be regarded as an obligatory complement.
Depending on its governing verb a cognate accusative can signal the role of result, patient, distance or duration, although its semantic force is limited. The added semantic value is usually supplied by the modifier which is nearly always present. Only rarely is this not the case, and then only when the meaning is already sufficiently restricted by the article (restriction in the singular; repetition in the plural).
Sometimes the governing word of the noun phrase is left out. At a later stage the third category mentioned above arises. Here it no longer matters what the governing word of the noun phrase would have been.

Historical background

The so-called ‘adverbial accusative’ (or accusativus adverbialis), i.e. the accusative as an adverbial, is derived from the use of neuter nominals as cognate objects. 200342 accusative patient,result,distance,duration,intransitivity
354 Accusative: time as satellite satellite In fixed expressions, the accusative signals a point in time as a satellite.

3

Καμάρινα τὸ πρῶτον ὑπὸ Συρακοσίων ᾠκίσθη

‘Camarina was first founded by the Syracusans.’ (Thuc. 6.5.3)

Lexical usage

E.g. τὸ νῦν ‘now’, τὸ πάλαι ‘long ago’, πρότερον ‘before’, τὸ πρότερον ‘the previous time’, πρῶτον ‘first’, τὸ κατ᾽ ἀρχάς ‘in the beginning’, τὸ πρῶτον ‘in the first place’, τὸ τελευταῖον ‘finally’, τὸ λοιπόν ‘in future’, ἀκμήν ‘just in time’, καιρόν ‘in season, just in time’, τὸ δεύτερον ‘secondly’ (but ἔπειτα or ἔπειτα δέ is more usual in a list).

Syntactic usage

The accusative marks when or at which moment something happens in a succession of events; the use of the dative of time is much freer. 200354 353 accusative time
357 Double accusative: object + cognate object direct object,passivization Many intransitive verbs take both an inanimate cognate object and a true object, which is usually animate.

2

τοὺς ἀδελφοὺς τοὺς αὑτοῦ ἐπαίδευσεν τὴν παιδείαν ταύτην

‘He taught his own brothers this lesson.’ (Dem. 35.42)

Syntactic usage

When the predicate is passivised, only the animate object can become a subject in the nominative. The cognate object stays in the accusative. 200357 accusative animacy
360 Double accusative: object + accusative of reference direct object Verbs of asking, demanding, reminding, learning, hiding and depriving usually take a double accusative: an animate accusative of the object on the one hand, and an inanimate accusative of the adverbial (which is often analysed as an adverbial of reference) on the other.

2

οὗτοι δεῦρο ἀφικόμενοι τὸν δῆμον ᾔτησαν δωρεάν

‘After their arrival they asked the people for a reward.’ (Aeschin. 3.183)

Lexical usage

Verbs of teaching

δισάσκω τινά τι I teach someone something

Verbs of asking

ἐρωτῶ τινά τι I ask someone something
αἰτῶ τινά τι I ask someone something
ἀπαιτῶ τινά τι I demand something back from someone
εἰσπράττω τινά τι I demand something back from someone

Verbs of hiding

κρύπτειν τινά τι I hide something from someone

Verbs of dressing and undressing

ἐκδύειν τινά τι to take something off someone
ἐνδύειν τινά τι to put something on someone
ἀμφιεννύναι τινά τι to put something on someone

Verbs of robbing

(ἀπο)συλᾶν τινά τι to rob someone of something
ἀποστερέω
ἀφαιρέω/ἀφαιρέομαι
The referential role of the inanimate accusative can be clarified by translating as follows:
ἀποστερέω, ἀφαιρέω: to rob someone with reference to something
ἐρωτάω: to interrogate someone with reference to something
διδάσκω: to teach someone with reference to something
ἀναμιμνῄσκω: to inform someone (again) with reference to something

Syntactic usage

However, these verbs often take other combinations of arguments, which make the semantic roles clearer:
- αἰτέω τινά τι versus αἰτέω τι παρά τινος: ‘to ask someone for something’
- ἀναμιμνῄσκω τινά versus τιἀναμιμνῄσκω τινά τινος:‘to remind someone of something’
- ἀποστερέω τινά τι versus ἀποστερέω τινά τινος: ‘to rob someone of something’
- ἐρωτάω τινά τι versus ἐρωτάω τινα περί τινος: ‘to ask someone something’

Historical background

The inanimate accusative of the object is a precursor of the accusative of reference.
In Homer a double accusative is also used with verbs of washing (νίζω etc.). 200360 accusative patient,animacy,verbs of depriving
362 Shared object (ἀπὸ κοινοῦ) direct object When two predicates share the same object this object takes the case required by the predicate which is closer to it. However, when one of the two predicates is a participle and the other a finite verb, the participle usually takes precedence.

2

προσπεσόντες τοῖς πρώτοις τρέπουσι

‘They attacked the first line and chased them on the run.’ (Thuc. 7.53)

Varia

Shared objects are an example of what is called ἀπὸ κοινοῦ in traditional grammars. 200362
363 Dative: beneficiary and malefactive as predicate NP predicate NP The dative signals a beneficiary or malefactive as a predicate NP if the word in the dative is accompanied by a participle indicating a tendency or aversion.

4

τῷ πλήθει τῶν Πλαταιῶν οὐ βουλομένῳ ἦν τῶν Ἀθηναίων ἀφίστασθαι

‘’ (Thuc. 2.3.2) 200363 dative beneficiary / malefactive
365 modifier,noun phrase 4

διὸ μί̄μησις τῶν λεγομένων σχήμασι γενομένη τὴν ὀρχηστικὴν ἐξηργάσατο τέχνην σύμπασαν

‘’ (Plat. Rep. 816a) 200365 dative instrument
366 Dative: standard of comparison as satellite satellite The dative signals a standard of comparison as a satellite.

4

ἔργῳ κοὐ λόγῳ τεκμαίρομαι.

‘’ (Aesch. PB 339)

Lexical usage

The predicate is a verb of measuring or judging (e.g. κρίνω ‘to judge’). 200366 dative standard of comparison
367 Dative: degree/measure as adjective complement satellite,obligatory attribute,adjective complement The dative signals the extent to which an entity differs from another, with comparatives or superlatives and with other expressions of comparison.

1

οὐ πολλῷ χρόνῳ ὕστερον μετέμελε τοῖς Ἀθηναίοι

‘Not long afterwards the Athenians regretted this.’ (Xen. Hell. 1.7.35)

Lexical usage

μακρῷ ‘to a large degree’, τοσούτῳ ‘to that degree’, ὅσῳ ‘to which degree’ etc.

Syntactic usage

The datives πολλῷ ‘much, very’ and ὀλίγῳ ‘a little, a bit’ are used interchangeably with πολύ and ὀλίγον. 200367 dative,comparative,superlative degree / measure
368 Dative: adjective complement adjective complement The dative signals a complement with adjectives, especially in the roles of standard of comparison, beneficiary or malefactive.

1

ἔτι οἱ γεωργοὶ τί χρήσιμοι τῇ πόλει;

‘In what respect are the farmers still useful for the city?’ (Aristot. Pol. 1268a.20)

Lexical usage

Beneficiary

εὐμένης, εὔνους ‘well-disposed’, χρήσιμος, ὠφέλιμος ‘useful’, πιστός ‘faithfulness’, πλήσιος ‘close’, φίλος ‘friendly’ etc.

Malefactive

ἀντίπαλος, ἐναντίος ‘opposite’, ἐχθρός ‘hostile’, κατήκοος ‘obedient’, πολέμιος ‘hostile’ etc.

Standard of comparison

ὁ αὐτός ‘the same’, ὅμοιος ‘similar’, παραπλήσιος ‘nearly resembling’, ἴσος ‘equal’.
Further also with ἴδιος or οἰκεῖος [also + gen.] ‘own, peculiar’, κοινός [also + gen.] ‘common, shared’.
200368 dative,personal pronoun standard of comparison,beneficiary / malefactive
369 Dative: companion as satellite satellite The dative signals a companion as a satellite. The word in the dative is invariably an army or a part of an army (troops, ships, etc.) by which a leader is accompanied.

2

Ἀλκιβιάδης κατέπλευσεν εἰς Πάρον ναυσὶν εἴκοσιν

‘Alkibiades sailed to Paros with twenty ships.’ (Xen. Hell. 1.4.11)

Syntactic usage

The dative of the military companion is used interchangeably with σύν + dative. 200369 dative companion
377 Nominative: extra-causal constituent, as exclamation (in tragedy) extra-clausal constituent In tragedy the nominative signals an exclamation in the first person after οἴμοι or ὤμοι ‘alas!’ or after ὦ.

3

οἴμοι τάλας, ὁ Ζεὺς ὅπως μή μ’ ὄψεται

‘Woe to me, wretch! Don't let Zeus see me!’ (Aristoph. Birds 1494)

Syntactic usage

For the second and third person the genitive is preferred over the nominative. 200377 nominative exclamation
394 1 200394 indicative,present indicative present time
398 1

Syntactic usage

200398 indicative,present indicative past time,telicity,telic aspect,dynamic aspect,narrative tense
400 1

Syntactic usage

200400 indicative,imperfect indicative past time
402 3 200402 indicative,imperfect indicative counterfactuality
408 1 200408 aorist stem,indicative past time
411 Aorist indicative: timelessness The aorist indicative indicates that the state of affairs is of unlimited validity in time.

2

παθὼν δέ τε νήπιος ἔγνω

‘Through suffering, the fool learns.’ (Hes. WD 218)

Lexical usage

The timeless aorist occurs in three types of context:
- in proverbs (= γνῶμαι), where it is called a gnomic aorist;
- in general truths;
- in Homeric comparisons (where the present indicative is also possible).

Syntactic usage

The aorist is used interchangeably with the present and perfect indicative. From the classical period onwards the use of the gnomic aorist decreases in favour of the gnomic present.
In an enumeration of repeated processes (which are usually in the present), the aorist indicative can be used to mark a crucial moment.

Historical background

In Homer the timeless aorist usually takes an augment (in 90% of cases, according to Bottin apud Duhoux); the identification of an aorist as timeless is, therefore, largely a matter of interpretation and translation. Furthermore, the use of the so-called timeless aorist in Homeric comparisons is often reflective of a past aorist in the main clause.
From the classical period onwards the timeless use of the aorist decreases in favour of the indicative present. The result is that Menander, in his γνῶμαι, uses the aorist only 8 times, as opposed to 287 present forms (Ruipérez apud Duhoux).

Frequency

In Homeric comparisons the aorist indicative is less frequent than the present indicative, but more frequent than the perfect indicative (Duhoux 2000: § 342). 200411 aorist stem,indicative timelessness,gnome
413 1 200413 perfect stem,indicative present time,resultative aspect
421 1

Syntactic usage

200421 pluperfect indicative past time,atelicity,resultative aspect,narrative tense
423 1

Syntactic usage

200423 future perfect indicative future time,atelicity
436 Nominative: subject of a finite predicate subject The nominative signals the syntactic function ‘subject’ in finite main and subordinate clauses. If possible the predicate agrees with its subject in number and gender.

1

ἔνδον μου τῆς ψυχῆς ἄλλος πόλεμος κάθηται.

‘In my soul a different conflict rages.’ (Ach. Tat. 4.4,7)

Syntactic usage

In most finite sentences the nominative is not expressed: Greek does not require the presence of a (pro)nominal phrase for designating the subject. The presence of such a phrase often implies that the subject functions as the focus. 200436 nominative patient,agent,experiencer,intransitivity,transitivity,semantic macrorole
459 predicate NP 2 200459 agreeing constituent,agreement
462 Verbal agreement: person and number The predicate agrees in person and number with the subject (which is its most salient complement). In the case of a subject in the neuter plural, however, the predicate is usually in the singular. 1

ἡ γὰρ ἀλήθεια καὶ τὰ πεπραγμέν᾽ αὐτὰ βοᾷ

‘For the truth and the facts speak for themselves.’ (Dem. 19.81)

Historical background

Plural, neuter subjects agree with a singular predicate for historical reasons. The ending of the neuter plural, in Greek -α 463 1

μορφὴν γὰρ ἔχει τὸ πῦρ ἢ ἀὴρ ἢ ὕδωρ;

‘Do fire and air and water have a shape?’ (Luc. Vit. Auct. 4) 200463 agreement number
486 Present stem: durative use 1 200486 present stem infective aspect,durativity
495 Indicative in main clause without ἄν: neutral modality main clause The indicative without ἄν signals a finding, i.e. that the speaker represents the action as real or generally valid. Whether or not the event actually took place is of no importance.

1

ἀλλ' ἔσθ' ὁ θάνατος λοῖσθος ἰατρὸς νόσων

‘Death is the ultimate physician for diseases.’ ( #)

Syntactic usage

In a main clause (or apodosis) accompanied by a conditional clause (or protasis) the force of the indicative is neutral: it does not explicitly state that the state of affairs actually takes place. 200495 indicative neutral modality,declarative clause
497 Indicative in main clause without ἄν: condition main clause The indicative without ἄν, often preceded by καὶ δὴ (καί), sometimes signals a condition at the level of the main clause.

4

καὶ δὴ παρεῖκεν· εἶτα πῶς ἄνευ νεὼς σωθησόμεσθα;

‘’ (Eur. Hel. 1059-1060) 200497 indicative condition
498 Secondary indicative in main clause with ἄν: counterfactuality main clause The imperfect, aorist or pluperfect indicative with ἄν signals the counterfactual modality of the main verb, i.e. that the speaker presents the state of affairs as impossible in the given circumstances.

1

ἡ Ἑλλὰς οὐκ ἂν ἤνεγκε δύο Ἀλκιβιάδας

‘Greece wouldn't be able to handle two Alcibiades.’ (Plut. Alc. 16.5)

Syntactic usage

The choice between the three aspect stems is based on aspectual differences only. There is a correlation in terms of frequency between the imperfect (infective aspect) and the present on the one hand and the aorist (confective aspect) and the past on the other. However, it is still the case that no more than 2/3 of all aorists, for example, refer to the past (Duhoux 2000). It is, therefore, a mistake to speak of a ‘present counterfactual’ and a ‘past counterfactual’ by analogy with the Latin model.
The – counterfactual – conditions in which this state of affairs might have been realised can be expressed by a conditional clause (also with an indicative in a secondary tense), a participle, an adverb or an adverbial. 200498 indicative,ἄν,secondary tense counterfactuality,declarative clause
499 Secondary indicative in the main clause without ἄν: counterfactual obligation/possibility main clause The past indicative in the main clause without ἄν signals an unfulfilled obligation (‘should have’), propriety (‘it would have been fitting’) or possibility (‘it would have been possible’) in a number of impersonal expressions.

2

τὸ δὲ τοῦ ἑταίρου πένθος ἄξιον ἦν δακρύων

‘The suffering of my comrade deserved tears.’ (Hdt. 3.14.10)

Lexical usage

1. Impersonal predicates in the imperfect indicative

1.a. Obligation

This concerns impersonal expressions such as ἔδει, (ἐ)χρῆν ‘should have’ or ἀναγκαῖον ἦν ‘it was necessary’. Impersonal constructions with a verbal adjective in -τέον can also indicate an unfulfilled obligation.

1.b. Propriety

This concerns impersonal constructions such as προσῆκε(ν), εἰκὸς ἦν ‘it would have been fitting’, ἄξιον ἦν ‘it would have been worthy’, δίκαιον εἶχε(ν) ‘it would have been just’, καλῶς εἶχε(ν) ‘it would have been good’ or καλλίον/κρεῖττον ἦν ‘it would have been better/worse’.

1.b. Possibility

This includes impersonal constructions such as ἐξῆν, ἐνῆν ‘it would have been possible’.

2. Expressions with ὀλίγου, μικροῦ or ἐλαχίστου

This concerns expressions indicating the notion ‘almost, but not quite’:

• ὀλίγου, μικροῦ, ἐλαχίστου + aor. ind.;
• ὀλίγου, μικροῦ, ἐλαχίστου ἐδέησε + aor. inf.

3. Personal predicates

Any personal predicate in a secondary indicative can be interpreted as counterfactual when it is apparent from the context that the conditions for the fulfilment of the obligation, propriety or possibility are counterfactual. ἐβουλόμην or ἤθελον ‘I would have wished’ and ᾦμην ‘I would have thought’ often occur with this meaning.

Syntactic usage

In some situations the secondary indicative without ἄν is equivalent to the secondary indicative with ἄν. 'I would have wished' can be translated either with ἐβουλόμην or with ἐβουλόμην ἄν.
The obligation or possibility may be either in the present or in the past.

Varia

Does this Greek construction (without ἄν) express counterfactual or neutral modality? There is no consensus on this issue. According to some researchers (including Duhoux) this really is a counterfactual modality and the absence of ἄν is a remnant of Homeric usage. 200499 indicative impersonality,counterfactuality,neutral modality
500 Imperfect or aorist indicative in main clause with ἄν: iterativity main clause The imperfect or aorist indicative, accompanied by ἄν, signals iterativity in the past.

2

ταῖς ἀδελφαῖς ἀγοράσαι χιτώνιον ἐκέλευσεν ἂν

‘Sometimes he begged me to buy undergarments for his sisters.’ (Aristoph. Pl. 984-985)

Syntactic usage

Subordinate clauses (relative, temporal or conditional clauses, as well as indirect questions) dependent on this type of main clause will usually take the optative.

Historical background

There is no evidence for this usage in the main clause before the fifth century B.C.E.

Frequency

Iterativity in the past is expressed in this way particularly by Herodotus and in Attic texts. 200500 aorist stem,indicative,imperfect indicative,ἄν past time,iterativity
503 Secondary indicative without ἄν: unattainable wish main clause The imperfect or aorist indicative, always preceded by εἴθε or εἰ γάρ, signals an unattainable wish.

1

εἴθε γὰρ αἱ κρῆναι καὶ ἄρτους ἔφερον

‘If only wells also brought forth bread!’ (D. L. 6.5)

Translation tips

This construction is best translated with if only (e.g. εἴθε ὤλλυτο ‘If only he were to die.’ or ‘If only he had died.’)

Syntactic usage

Wishes which refer to the present are always in the imperfect. When the wish refers to the past, an aorist is usually, though not always, used.

Frequency

This way of expressing the unattainable wish is relatively rare in Greek and occurs mainly in the dramatists. 200503 indicative,imperfect indicative unattainable wish,optative clause
505 Counterfactual wish, expressed by ὤφελον main clause Forms of ὤφελον (the aorist indicative of ὀφείλω 'to be obliged'), followed by a present or aorist infinitive, signal a counterfactual wish.

2

ὡς ὤφελον πάροιθεν ἐκλιπεῖν βίον

‘Alas, if only I had departed sooner from this life!’ (Soph. El. 1131)

Lexical usage

Homer sometimes uses ὤφελλον (A ind. impf. of ὀφέλλω) instead of ὤφελον.

Syntactic usage

The negation is μή (although οὐ was originally obligatory) and stands before or after ὤφελον.

Historical background

In Homer this was still the only way to express a counterfactual wish.

Indicators

Sometimes the particle εἴθε or εἰ γάρ (poetic αἴθε or ὡς) is used before ὤφελον. The particle ὡς often precedes ὤφελον in Homer; it also occurs in the Attic poets, albeit rarely. 200505 infinitive unattainable wish
508 Imperative in the main clause: command main clause The imperative signals a command in the second and third person in the main clause.

1

ἀκόλαστον ἔσχε γλῶσσαν

‘Control your undisciplined mouth!’ (Eur. Orest. 10)

Syntactic usage

Choice between aorist and present stem

The reason why a Greek speaker opts for the present stem or the aorist stem is still unclear, despite years of linguistic research. In the scientific literature on this subject one encounters three tendencies (see also the chapter on aspect):

1. referential theories (‘perfective’ or ‘special’ command [AS] vs. ‘imperfective’ or ‘general’ command [PS]);
2. pragmatic theories (command ‘in comment’ [AS] vs. command ‘in focus’ [PS]);
3. sociolinguistic theories (‘polite’ command [AS] vs. ‘less polite’ command [PS])

So far none of the above theories is capable of explaining all the cases of the imperative. It is clear that the third person occurs much more frequently in the present stem than in the aorist stem.

Other aspect stems

Imperatives with a perfect stem are relatively rare. The future stem is normally not used to form an imperative (because both morphological categories refer to the future), but some verbs have unmistakable future forms: e.g. ἄξετε (2nd pl., of ἄγω 'to lead') and οἶσε (2nd sg., of φέρω 'to carry').

Indicators

An imperative is often preceded by a particle ἄγε δή, φέρε δή or ἴθι δή 'come on!' (sometimes with νύν instead of δή). These particles are fixed, regardless of number or gender. In poetic language πᾶς is sometimes added to the second person singular. 200508 imperative imperative clause,second person,third person
511 μή with aorist imperative: prohibition (in the third person) main clause An aorist imperative in the main clause, preceded by μή, signals a prohibition in the third person.

3

καὶ μηδεὶς αὐτὰ φαῦλα νομισάτω εἶναι

‘Nobody should consider that unimportant!’ (Xen. Cyn. 2.2)

Syntactic usage

In poetic language μή with the aorist imperative is very occasionally used to express a prohibition in the second person. In comedy, which tends to be closer to the common language, this imperative of the second person is sometimes used to parody tragedy. 200511 523 aorist stem,imperative prohibition,imperative clause
512 Imperative in the main clause: concession or condition main clause The imperative sometimes signals a concession or condition at the level of the main clause. The state of affairs which is restricted by the condition is linked to the imperative with καί.

3

μήποτε γάμει γυναῖκα κοὐκ ἀνοίξεις τάφον

‘Never marry a woman and you will not open a grave.’ (Men. Mon. 362)

Translation tips

English has similar constructions with an imperative: “Read the newspaper, then you'll know what I'm talking about.” = “If you read the newspaper, you'll know what I'm talking about.”

Syntactic usage

This ‘concessive’ imperative often takes the present stem; the ‘conditional’ imperative more often takes the aorist stem (Denizot 2011: 250-261). 200512 imperative concession,condition
516 Subjunctive in main clause with or without ἄν: plausibility [Homer] main clause In Homer a main clause in the subjunctive (with or without κε(ν) or ἄν) represents a state of affairs as plausible. Where its meaning is concerned the Homeric subjunctive in the main clause approaches the future indicative.

3

μνήσομαι οὐδὲ λάθωμαι Ἀπόλλωνος ἑκάτοιο

‘I'll remember the far-shooting Apollon and not forget him.’ (HH H. 3 1)

Syntactic usage

The negation is οὐ when the verb is not accompanied by ἄν; when ἄν is used it is μή.

Historical background

Already in epic poetry the subjunctive in the main clause is subject to competition from the indicative (in many cases the future). The tendency to restrict the use of the subjunctive to subordinate clauses means that in the classical period it is only used in deliberative or deontic modalities in the main clause.

Varia

In traditional grammars there is much terminological confusion around the different forms of plausibility (umbrella term: eventualis):

• one-off plausibility = futuralis
• repeatable plausibility = generalis, iterativus

200516 subjunctive,ἄν plausibility
518 Subjunctive in main clause: hortation in the first person main clause The subjunctive in the main clause signals a command or prohibition in the first person, usually in the plural.

1

φέρε οὖν ἀναβαλώμεθα τὸν γάμον εἰς τὸ μετόπωρον

‘Let us postpone the wedding to the autumn.’ (Longus 4.18)

Translation tips

The translation usually contains let us....

Syntactic usage

The subjunctive is used instead of the imperative, which lacks a first person. Both the present and the aorist stem occur.

Introductory words

The hortatory subjunctive is sometimes preceded by another command or ἄγε, ἄγετε, δεῦρο, δεῦτε, ἔα, εἰ δ᾽ ἄγε, ἴθι or φέρε (sometimes with (δή) 200518 subjunctive imperative clause,first person
522 Subjunctive in main clause: hortation in the second or third person The subjunctive in the main clause occasionally signals a command or prohibition in the second or third person. In classical Attic this construction virtually never occurs.

4

φέρ᾽, ὦ τέκνον, νῦν καὶ τὸ τῆς νήσου μάθῃς

‘’ (Soph. Phil. 300) 200522 aorist stem,present stem,subjunctive imperative clause,second person,third person
523 μή with aorist subjunctive: prohibition (2nd person) main clause The aorist subjunctive, preceded by μή, signals a prohibition, as the negation of an aorist imperative.

1

μὴ θαυμάσητε δὲ τὸ μῆκος τῆς ἐπιστολῆς

‘Do not be surprised at the length of the letter.’ (Dem. 12.1)

Syntactic usage

The use of μὴ aorist subj. (at the expense of the parallel construction μὴ present imp.) occurs mainly with:
- specific prohibitions
- polite prohibitions
- telic verbs

Historical background

The use of the subjunctive for prohibition could be explained - following Rijksbaron - in terms of a nuance of fear.

Frequency

This prohibition usually occurs in the second person, very rarely in the third. For the third person μή with the aorist imperative is more common. 200523 aorist stem,subjunctive,μή (negative particle) prohibition,imperative clause
526 μή with present subjunctive in main clause: cautious assertion main clause,insubordination The subjunctive in the main clause, preceded by μή, signals a cautiously expressed assertion, often with ironic connotations.

2

μὴ γὰρ οὐ φαῦλον ᾖ ὃ λέγει

‘For there might well be a great deal in what he says.’ (Plat. Parm. 136d)

Translation tips

In translation perhaps or presumably may be used. It is also possible to express the elided clause of fearing: ‘I fear that…’ (or ‘I suspect that…’).

Syntactic usage

Historical background

This construction is in use from the 5th century B.C. onwards and is regarded as typically Platonic. Historically it may be explained as a case of insubordination, i.e. in which an (obligatory) subordinate clause becomes a main clause through ellipsis of the main verb: [φοβοῦμαι] μὴ (οὐ) φαῦλον ἦ ‘[I fear] that it is not stupid.’
The presence of the indicative in later examples proves that Greek speakers no longer regarded this construction as a case of insubordination.

Frequency

Besides the subjunctive the (present or aorist) indicative also occurs with this meaning, albeit less frequently and only with a negated μὴ οὐ. 200526 524 ellipsis,aorist stem,present stem,indicative,subjunctive,μή (negative particle) fear
527 Subjunctive in interrogative main or subordinate clause: deliberative question main clause,subordinate clause In (direct or indirect) interrogative sentences the subjunctive signals that the speaker (who is always the subject) is in doubt as to whether or not he should carry out the action.

1

τί οὖν πίθωμαι δῆτά σοι;

‘Why should I believe you?’ (Aristoph. Cl. 87)

Translation tips

The translation usually begins with should/could we/...

Syntactic usage (not possible optativus obliquus)

The deliberative subjunctive is in the first person, sometimes in the third person when the speaker is referring to himself (usually with τίς). The second person is only used to repeat a question.
In indirect questions the deliberative subjunctive may be freely used with the third person.

Frequency

In the corpus of Chanet some 6 % of the subjunctives are deliberative (bron: Duhoux).
Where the ratio between the aspects is concerned Duhoux gives the following figures (from McWorther and Fanning):
- Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides: 73,2 % aorist ~ 26,8 % present
- New Testament: 95,1 % aorist ~ 4,9 % present 200527 subjunctive deliberative subjunctive,interrogative clause
528 βούλομαι with subjunctive in interrogative main clause: (inviting) deliberative question main clause,parenthesis In Attic a deliberative subjunctive may be introduced by βούλει (or βούλῃ) or βούλεσθε 'would you like to?'. Formally this construction is an interrogative clause, with regard to its content it is an invitation.

2

βούλει σε θῶ φοβηθῆναι

‘Shall I assume, then, that you were shaking with fear?’ (Aeschin. 3.163)

Lexical usage

In poetic language this construction also occurs with θέλεις or θέλετε. Sometimes κελεύετε is also found.

Syntactic usage

It is difficult to determine whether the form of βούλομαι is coordinate with or subordinate to the subjunctive. The subjunctive is not introduced by a subordinating conjunction, which would be unique in Greek sentence structure (but on the other hand βούλομαι, of course, usually takes the infinitive). If this is not a case of subordination, βούλει and βούλεσθε must be interpreted as parenthetical.
The meaning does not differ substantially from the normal deliberative subjunctive, although the βούλει-construction more explicitly solicits the opinion of the listener.

Historical background

In Koine this subordination is regularised by means of the conjunction ἵνα. The success of the construction θέλεις/θέλετε ἵνα + subj. is apparent from modern Greek, where θα + subj. is the standard way to express future tense. 200528 527 subjunctive deliberative subjunctive,interrogative clause
532 Optative in the main clause with ἄν: possibility main clause The optative with ἄν signals a possible modality in the main clause, i.e. that the speaker presents the conditions under which the state of affairs may occur as possible.

1

τοῦτο αἰσχυνοίμην ἂν εἰπεῖν

‘I would be ashamed to say that.’ (Xen. Cyrop. 5.1.21)

Translation tips

In most cases it is best to avoid the word can when translating. When Greek emphasises the possibility of the action itself it tends to use the auxiliary verb δύναμαι. In the same way as the counterfactual modality, the possible modality may be translated with the auxiliary verb would.

Syntactic usage

The negation is οὐ, which expresses a strong negation: ‘It would not even be possible that...’
The condition may be expressed through a conditional adverbial (in various forms: conditional clause, adverb, substantive or participle). 200532 optative,ἄν present time,possibility,declarative clause
536 Optative in main clause with or without ἄν: weak command main clause The optative, usually in the present, signals a polite request in dialogues. With ἄν the optative has a stronger, commanding force.

2

λέγοις ἂν τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο

‘Tell me what comes after it!’ (Plat. Epin. 980c)

Translation tips

Like other potential optatives this usage can be translated with the auxiliary 'would'. In English the future-in-the-past is also used for a polite request.

Syntactic usage

The optative usually occurs in the present.
A negated clause signals a weak prohibition (but not in questions).

Varia

This optative also signals a regulation in non-Attic legal texts. 200536 537 optative imperative clause,possibility
537 Optative in main clause with ἄν: modest opinion main clause The optative with ἄν signals a modest opinion, i.e. that the speaker is certain of the reality of the action, but presents himself as uncertain. This type of optative may also be ironic.

2

εἴησαν δ’ ἄν οὗτοι Κρῆτες

‘Must have been Cretans.’ (Hdt. 1.2)

Translation tips

In this usage the potential optative can often be translated 'can' or 'will' rather than 'could'.

Historical background

This usage is not attested before the 5th century B.C.E. 200537 optative,ἄν possibility
539 Optative in main clause without ἄν: plausible wish main clause The optative, often preceded by εἴθε or εἰ γάρ (poetic εἰ, αἰ or ὡς), signals a plausible wish.

1

κακῶς δ' ὄλοιντο πάντες οἳ τυραννίδι χαίρουσιν

‘May all those who support tyranny perish in an awful way!’ (Eur. 275)

Translation tips

The traditional translation of the plausible wish involves may... as an auxiliary (e.g. εἰ γὰρ ὄλοιτο ‘May he die.’). Sometimes it is better to translate it with the adverb hopefully (e.g. εἰ γὰρ ὄλοιτο ‘Hopefully he will die.’).

Historical background

The optative, introduced by εἴθε or εἰ (γάρ), is sometimes analysed as a conditional clause without a main clause: εἴθε φίλος ἡμῖν γένοιο... 'if you were to become our friend...' (Xen. HG 4.1.38). 200539 optative attainable wish,optative clause
549 οὐ μή with aorist subjunctive in the main clause: strong negation main clause,insubordination The aorist subjunctive, preceded by οὐ μή, signals a strong negation in the future.

2

ἀλλ’ οὐ μὴ εἴπητε φρένας ἔχοντες

‘No, you will not speak with any sense!’ (Epict. Disc. 3.7.8)

Historical background

This is a typically Attic construction. Historically the double negation may be explained as a case of insubordination, i.e. in which an (obligatory) subordinate clause becomes a main clause through ellipsis of the main verb: οὐ [φόβος / κίνδυνος ἐστι] μὴ φαῦλον ἦ ‘[There is no fear] that it is stupid.’ Since in the original construction μή was a subordinating conjunction, only the negation οὐ can be replaced by a negative adverb or pronoun (οὐκέτι, οὐδείς etc.).

Frequency

The present subjunctive also occurs, although much less frequently than the aorist. 200549 523 ellipsis,aorist stem,present stem,subjunctive,οὐ μή negation
572 Infinitive: subject subject,subordinate clause The infinitive generally signals the role of patient as a subject, although in theory any semantic role of the subject can be expressed.

2

οὐ χρὴ λέοντος σκύμνον ἐν πόλει τρέφειν

‘You should not raise a lion cub in the city.’ (Aesch. #)

Lexical usage

As subject the infinitive is used with (semi)impersonal verbs and expressions such as:

• δεῖ, χρή, ἀναγκαῖον 'it is necessary'
• δοκεῖ, καλόν 'it is good' en αἰσχρόν 'it is shameful'
• ἔστι, ἔξεστι, οἷόν τέ ἐστι, δυνατόν 'it is possible' en ἀδύνατον (or ἀδύνατα) 'it is impossible'
• πρέπει, προσήκει, ἄξιον, δίκαιον 'it is fitting, it is seemly'
• συμβαίνει 'it happens'
• ὥρᾱ and καιρός 'it is time'.

Syntactic usage

The predicate NP usually occurs in the neuter singular; rarely in the neuter plural.

Historical background

Etymologically the Greek infinitive goes back to a construction expressing goal. In its use with ὥρα and καιρός '(it is) time to...' the infinitive is still clearly a dative of goal. The same is true of the infinitive with δεῖ and χρή: δεῖ ἱππέων μάχεσθαι 'horsemen are needed in order to fight' > δεῖ ἱππεῦσι μάχεσθαι 'fighting is necessary for the horsemen' (therefore: 'the horsemen need to fight'). 200572 infinitive patient,processed,declarative clause
573 Infinitive with deontic modality: argument (‘dynamic infinitive’) subject,direct object,subordinate clause The dynamic infinitive signals a patient as a subject or object with verbs of wanting, being able and intending.

1

φίλον πρὸς ἄνδρα χρὴ λέγειν ἐλευθέρως

‘To a friend you should speak freely.’ (Eur. Alc. 1008)

Lexical usage

Verbs of being able

δύναμαι or ἔχω ‘to be able’, ἐπίσταμαι or οἶδα ‘to know how, to be able’, μανθάνω ‘to learn how’, οἶός τε εἰμι ‘to be capable of’, πέφυκα ‘to be suitable for’ etc.

Verbs of wanting

ἀναγκάζω ‘to force’, βούλομαι ‘to want’, ἐθέλω ‘to want, agree’, ἐπιθυμέω ‘to long’, εὔχομαι ‘to wish’, τάττω ‘to impose’ etc.

Verbs of intending

ἐπιχειρέω or πειράομαι ‘to try’, κατεργάζομαι ‘to cause’, παρασκευάζομαι ‘to get ready’, ποιέω ‘to do, cause’, σπουδάζω ‘to be eager’ etc.

Verbs of obligation (with an inf. as subject)

ἀνάγκη ἐστί (μοι) or ἀναγκαῖον ἐστί (μοι) ‘it is necessary’, δεῖ (με) or χρή (με) ‘it is necessary’

Verbs of fearing and bewaring (rare)

The meaning of verbs of fearing changes when they take an infinitive. For example, δέδοικα + μή + conj. means ‘to be afraid that…’ while δέδοικα + inf. means ‘to hesitate to…, not dare to’.

Translation tips

Notice that in English, too, object clauses with similar verbs usually take the form of an infinitive. Think of sentences such as: Mieke can ski. – Jantje wants to sing. – Freddy tries to dance.

Syntactic usage

Subject in case of coreference

In general the subject of the main verb and that of the infinitive are coreferential and only the infinitive is used. If the subjects are not coreferential the subject of the infinitive takes the case which would be required for an object of that main verb. Usually this results in an accusativus cum infinitivo, but the genitivus cum infinitivo (e.g. σοῦ δέομαι ἀκολουθεῖν (Plat. Prot. 336a) ‘I ask you to follow.’) and the dativus cum infinitivo (e.g. τοῖς ἄλλοις πᾶσι παρήγγελλεν ἐξοπλίζεσθαι (Xen. Anab. 2.1.2) ‘He commanded the others to take up arms.’) also occur.

Relative time?

The state of affairs expressed by the infinitive is always posterior to that of the main verb. Consequently it exists – to use an Aristotelian term – only δυνάμει ‘in potency’; hence the name ‘dynamic infinitive’. This explains why the future infinitive only occurs as a declarative infinitive and never as a dynamic infinitive: this is because it would be unnecessary to signal posteriority in two different ways.

Use of tenses and moods

When the main verb is in the aorist the infinitive has the tendency to take the aorist too. This tendency is reversed if the main verb is in the optative. A main verb in the perfect is usually followed by a present infinitive.

Indicators

Because of the resultative nature of this infinitive in some idiomatic expressions it can be anticipated by a cataphoric construction, as in τοσούτου δέω. 200573 infinitive result,verbs of fear,verbs of effort,verbs of will
575 Infinitive: satellite satellite The infinitive signals the following roles as a satellite:

• result (with the same force as ὥστε or ὡς with the infinitive);
• reference (= point of view);
• instrument (with the same function as the dative of instrument);
• source (with the same function as the genitive of source).

3

τίς τ’ ἄρ σφωε θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι;

‘What god has led them to quarrel so that they will fight?’ (Hom. Il. 1.8) 200575 infinitive result,source,reference,instrument
576 Infinitive: result or property as (agreeing) argument The infinitive can function as an agreeing constituent:

• with the subject (e.g. with καλέομαι ‘to be called’, νομίζομαι ‘to be regarded as’);
• with the first object (e.g. with καλέω ‘to call’).

4

Syntactic usage

It goes without saying that the infinitive is a nominative in the first case and an accusative in the second, although this is not morphologically apparent. 200576 nominative,agreeing constituent,accusative,infinitive
577 Infinitive with deontic modality: adjective complement adjective complement The infinitive can serve as the complement of an adjective, with various semantic roles which are normally expressed by a dative (especially goal and reference).

2

δεινὸς γὰρ οἶνος καὶ παλαίεσθαι βαρύς

‘Wine is terrible thing, and difficult to overcome.’ (Eur. Cycl. 681)

Lexical usage

The adjectives in question express suitability or worthiness: ἱκανός ‘suitable’, δυνατός ‘capable’, δεινός ‘skilful’, ἄξιος ‘worthy’, ῥᾴδιος ‘easy’, χαλεπός ‘difficult’ etc. The same applies to the expression οἷος τέ εἰμι ‘I am capable’.

Syntactic usage

In Greek the infinitive is often used in its active form where we would expect a passive infinitive in English.

Historical background

This construction shows that the infinitive is both a formal and a functional continuation of a noun in the dative. 200577 infinitive reference,goal
582 Infinitive in main clause: command main clause The infinitive signals a command in all contexts where the imperative can be used.

2

ἔχε καὶ πιεῖν κεκραμένον τρία καὶ δύο

‘Take and drink this mix of three-two (water-wine)!’ (Aristoph. Kn. 1187)

Lexical usage

The usual opening of a letter is the imperative infinitive χαίρειν 'greetings' or 'dear...'. Other openings include εὖ πράττειν and ὑγιαίνειν (see Luc. Laps. 5-6).

Syntactic usage

The imperative infinitive usually relates to a subject in the second person, although in legal texts the third person is also found. If expressed, the subject takes the nominative.

Historical background

The use of the infinitive in imperative main clauses goes back to its use as an adverbial expressing goal. The expression of goal then came to be used independently. Imperative infinitives were in use as early as Homer.
In its sigmatic form the M aor. imperat., 2nd sg. was originally an imperative infinitive, albeit with a recessive accent: παίδευσαι 'bring up!' ~ παιδεῦσαι 'to bring up'.

Frequency

This usage is well-established in archaic poetry, and often has formal connotations in prose.
In the archaic poetry of Homer and Hesiod the imperative infinitive was in common use (encompassing some 5,7% of the infinitives in Homer). Despite its decreased frequency in the classical period (with, for instance, 0,3% of the infinitives in Herodotus) the infinitive still expresses commands in the Pontic variety of Modern Greek even today. 200582 infinitive imperative clause
583 Infinitive in the main clause: exclamation (often with τό) main clause The infinitive, with or without the article τό, signals an exclamation which is presented as real. The speaker is amazed by or indignant about the state of affairs.

2

τῆς τύχης, τὸ ἐμὲ νῦν κληθέντα δεῦρο τυχεῖν

‘What an accident, that I was called here just now!’ (Xen. Cyrop. 2.2.3)

Translation tips

A good English translation will also use the infinitive as the main verb (e.g. παθεῖν ταῦτα ‘To have to undergo this!’) or a finite subordinate clause, introduced by that (e.g. ἐμὲ παθεῖν ταῦτα ‘That I must undergo this!’).

Syntactic usage

If the infinitive has a subject, this subject takes the accusative.

Historical background

This use of the infinitive is attested from the fifth century B.C. onwards, especially in drama.

Indicators

This infinitive is often preceded by one or more interjections (e.g. φεῦ ‘alas!’) or by a genitive of exclamation (e.g. τῆς τύχης ‘what a misfortune!’). 200583 infinitive exclamation,neutral modality
590 modifier,noun phrase 1

Syntactic usage

200590 article ὁ, ἡ, τό,attributive construction,participle,possessive pronoun
591 modifier,noun phrase 1 200591 attributive construction,participle
596 Participle: predicative construction predicative construction,agreeing satellite The participle signals a satellite agreeing with the subject or an object. This participle can perform all possible semantic roles as an agreeing argument. Usually the context must decide which notion is intended (and this can not always be done unambiguously). 2 200596 participle property
597 Participle: time as agreeing satellite satellite The participle signals a moment in time as a satellite. 1

ἀναστάντες θύουσι τῷ Διονύσῳ κριὸν

‘When they had got up they sacrificed a ram for Dionysius.’ (Longus 3.10)

Lexical usage

Some fossilised temporal participles are used as adverbs: ἀρχόμενος 'in the beginning', τελευτῶν 'finally', διαλιπὼν (or ἐπισχὼν) χρόνον 'after a time', διαλείπων χρόνον 'from time to time', χρονίζων 'for a long time', ἀρξάμενος (ἀπό τινος) 'beginning (with someone/something)'.

Syntactic usage

The intended relative time with reference to the main verb usually appears from the aspect stem used (sometimes rendered more explicit through the use of a particle):

• anteriority: aorist part. (often with εἶτα or ἔπειτα ‘after’, ἄρτι ‘just now’).




• simultaneity: present part. (often with ἅμα or μεταξύ ‘at the same time’ αὐτίκα or εὐθύς [Ionic ἰθέως] ‘as soon as’).

The temporal force of the aorist or present aspect is disputed, but can serve as a rule of thumb in interpretation.
In this usage the participle tends to precede the main verb.

Indicators

The predicate of the sentence to which the temporal participle belongs is often accompanied by temporal adverbs such as τότε, ἤδη (τότε ἤδη), ἐνταῦθα, εἶτα, ἔπειτα or οὕτως. 200597 596 aorist stem,present stem,participle time
598 Participle: cause as agreeing satellite satellite The participle, sometimes accompanied by ἅτε or ὡς, signals a cause as a satellite agreeing with the subject.

1

ἠσπαζόμην αὐτὼ ἅτε διὰ χρόνου ἑωρακώς

‘I greeted them both because I saw them again after a long time.’ (Plat. Euthyd. 273c)

Syntactic usage

The two particles each have their own nuance:

• ἅτε (sometimes οἷον or οἷα, in Herodotus ὥστε) denotes an objective cause (‘since’, ‘considering that’);
• ὡς or ὥσπερ denotes a subjective cause (‘as if’, ‘under the impression that’, ‘on pretext of).

When a form of ὤν, the participle of εἰμί, is accompanied by a particle, the participle may be omitted.
A causative participle is usually placed after the main verb.

Indicators

The predicate of the sentence of which the causative clause is a part is often accompanied by satellites such as οὕτως, διὰ τοῦτο, διὰ ταῦτα or ἐκ τούτου. 200598 596 participle,ὡς,ὥστε,οἷος, οἵα, οἷον,ἅτε cause
599 Participle: goal as agreeing satellite satellite The participle in the future (rarely in the present) signals a goal as a satellite, agreeing with the subject. This is usually the case with verbs of sending, going, commanding, preparing, etc.

1

ἄρτους αἰτησόμενος ἧκον

‘I have come to ask for bread.’ (Longus 3.6)

Syntactic usage

The notion of goal is usually strengthened by the particle ὡς.

Varia

With a small number of verbs of caring, including παρασκευάζομαι ‘to prepare oneself to’, a future participle is used with or without ὡς. This participle may be regarded as an object, used interchangeably with the infinitive and with ὅπως with a subjunctive.
After verbs of motion ὡς is usually not used. According to some grammars ὡς denotes a subjective goal. 200599 596 future stem,participle,ὡς goal,verbs of effort
600 Participle: manner as agreeing satellite agreeing satellite The participle signals a manner as a satellite agreeing with another constituent. If accompanied by the particle ὥσπερ or ὡς ‘as, like’ the participle signals a manner by means of a comparison.

1

καὶ αὐτὴ πλανᾶται καὶ ταράττεται καὶ εἰλιγγιᾷ ὥσπερ μεθύουσα;

‘And she [= the soul] floats about, is startled and dizzy as if she had drunk [when the body guides her].’ (Plat. Phaedo 79c)

Lexical usage

The particle ὥσπερ can be replaced by ὥσπερ εἰ or ὡσπερανεί without a noteworthy difference in meaning. In Homer the same is true of ὥς τε, ὡς εἰ and ὡς εἴ τε. 200600 596 participle,ὡς,ὥσπερ manner,comparison
601 Participle: concession as agreeing satellite agreeing satellite The participle, often preceded by περ, καίπερ (or καί or καίτοι), signals a concession as a satellite, agreeing with another constituent

1

πείθου γυναιξί καίπερ οὐ στέργων ὅμως.

‘Listen to us, women, even if you don't like it.’ (Aesch. Seven 712)

Syntactic usage

When accompanied by a particle, ὤν, the participle of εἰμί, may be omitted.

Historical background

In Homer and tragic texts καί … περ is sometimes separated by the participle or by a word connected with it.

Indicators

The predicate of the sentence to which a concessive participle belongs is often accompanied by adverbs such as ὅμως, εἶτα, ἔπειτα, ἔμπας or οὕτως. 200601 596 participle concession
602 Participle: condition as agreeing satellite satellite The participle, where relevant preceded by the negation μή, signals a condition as a satellite agreeing with another constituent.

1

λίαν φιλῶν σεαυτὸν οὐχ ἕξεις φίλον

‘If you love yourself too much you will have no friends.’ (Men. Mon. 310) 200602 596 participle condition
605 Participle: argument with verbs of perception and emotions subordinate clause,agreeing argument The participle signals an object agreeing with verbs of (sensory or mental) perception and emotions.

2

οὐκ οἶσθ᾽ ἐξαπατώμενος πάλαι;

‘Do you not know that you are being deceived?’ (Aristoph. Birds 1641)

Lexical usage

The meaning of a verb often changes depending on whether it is followed by an infinitive or a participle.

Verbs of perceiving and knowing

• {seeing and noticing} αἰσθάνομαι ‘to perceive’, δείκνυμι ‘to show’ (with inf. ‘to enjoin’), δηλόω ‘to prove’ (with inf. ‘to enjoin’), δοκιμάζω ‘to appear’ (with inf. ‘to approve’), ἔοικα (+ nom. ‘to seem to’, + dat. ‘to seem like’; with inf. ‘to appear to’), ὁράω ‘to see’ (often with present participle), ποιέω ‘to present’ (with inf. ‘to cause’ or ‘to accept’), σημαίνω ‘to show’;
• {hearing and perceiving} ἀκούω, ἀκροάομαι ‘to hear’, εὑρίσκω ‘to find that, to judge’ (with inf. ‘to find out, discover’), πυνθάνομαι ‘to learn’;
• {knowing and realising} ἀγγέλλω ‘to announce’, γιγνώσκω ‘to realise’ (with inf. ‘to judge, learn’), ἐπιλανθάνομαι ‘to forget that’ (with inf. ‘to forget how’), ἐπίσταμαι and οἶδα ‘to know’ (also with ὅτι or ὡς; with inf. ‘to be capable of’), κατανοέω ‘to suspect’, μέμνημαι (+ genitive present participle; + nominative aorist participle.) ‘to remember that’ (with inf. ‘to remember to do something’), μανθάνω ‘to find out’ (with inf. ‘to learn’), νοέω ‘realise’ (also with ὡς), νομίζω ‘to be of the opinion’ (also with ὡς), σύνοιδα ‘to know well, to be aware of’.

Verbs expressing a frame of mind

• {emotions} αἰσχύνομαι ‘to be ashamed about doing something’ (with inf. ‘… to do something’), ἀναίνομαι ‘to disown, be ashamed’ (with inf. ‘to refuse’), ἄχθομαι ‘to be annoyed’, ἐθέλω ‘to be willing’ (also with inf.), ἥδομαι ‘to enjoy oneself’, μεταμέλομαι ‘to repent, to be sorry’, χαίρω ‘to be delighted’ (+ acc. or dat.), χαρίζομαι ‘to gratify with…’;
• {judging} ἀδικέω ‘to act unjustly by…’, εὖ/κακῶς/καλῶς ποιέω of λέγω ‘to speak good or bad of…’;
• {persevering} ἀνέχομαι ‘to persevere in…’ (sometimes with inf.), ἡττάομαι ‘to be worsted’, περιοράω ‘to look at with indifference’ (with present participle) or ‘to close one's eyes to’ (with aorist participle), but ‘to let happen’ (with inf.), ὑπομένω ‘to endure’ (with inf. ‘to have good courage to’) [in poetry also μένω, τολμάω and τλάω].

Syntactic usage

Ways of approaching this construction

In the sentence “ὁρᾷς ἐμὲ ἡμαρτηκότα” (‘you see that I have made a mistake’) ἐμὲ can be seen as an object of ὁρᾷς, with which ἡμαρτηκότα agrees. At the same time ἐμὲ can be regarded as the subject of ἡμαρτηκότα, functioning in its turn as an embedded object of ὁρᾷς.

Coreference with the subject

If the subject of the participle is coreferential with the subject, the participle appears in the nominative and the subject is not expressed (ὁρᾷς ἡμαρτηκώς: you see that you have made a mistake). In a non-coreferential situation both the participle and the subordinate subject appear in the same case, usually the accusative (ὁρᾷς ἐμὲ ἡμαρτηκότα: you say that I have made a mistake). In the first case traditional grammars speak of a nominativus cum participio, in the second case of an accusativus (or genitivus or dativus) cum participio.

The expression of temporality

The participle, which replaces the indicative in direct speech, expresses temporality. Thus the participle in the aorist expresses an action which is anterior to the main verb.

Historical background

With verbs of speaking the participle only occurs from the fifth century B.C. onwards, and even then only rarely (Crespo e.a. 2003).

Frequency

In the first two books of his Histories Thucydidies opts for a participle in 77,7% of the cases where he could also have chosen an infinitive clause or a finite completive clause (Coppieters, apud Duhoux).

Varia

In rare cases a participium completivum is accompanied by ὡς or ὥσπερ.
If the main verb is aorist, its complementary participle has the tendency to take the aorist too. 200605 participle verbs of perception,verbs of feeling
608 satellite

1

Syntactic usage

200608 genitive,participle
612 Genitive absolute: time as satellite satellite The genitive absolute signals a moment in time as a satellite.

1

ἔψαλλον δὲ αὗται καὶ ᾖδον ἐκείνου δειπνοῦντος.

‘These women played music and sang while he had his meal.’ (Ath. 12.530)

Syntactic usage

The temporal relevance of aorist and present aspect is disputed, but may serve as a rule of thumb for interpretation:

• anteriority is often signalled by the aorist (frequently with εἶτα or ἔπειτα ‘after’, ἄρτι ‘just’);
• simultaneity is often signalled by the present (frequently with ἅμα ‘at the same time’ or μεταξύ ‘in the meanwhile’ αὐτίκα or εὐθύς [Ionic ἰθέως] ‘as soon as', ἐξαίφνης ‘suddenly’).

Indicators

The predicate of the sentence of which the temporal participle forms a part is often accompanied by adverbs of time such as τότε, ἤδη (τότε ἤδη), ἐνταῦθα, εἶτα, ἔπειτα of οὕτως. 200612 608 genitive,participle time
614 Genitive absolute: cause as satellite satellite The genitive absolute, often accompanied by ἅτε or ὡς, signals a cause as a satellite. The referent of the subject of the genitive absolute is never identical to that of the main clause (so coreferential situations are impossible).

1

πάντες δὲ ᾤοντο ἀπολωλέναι, ὡς ἑαλωκυίας τῆς πόλεως.

‘They thought they were all doomed, because the city had been occupied.’ (Xen. Anab. 7.1.19)

Syntactic usage

The two particles each have their own nuance:

• ἅτε (sometimes οἷον or οἷα, in Herodotus ὥστε) denotes an objective cause ('since');
• ὡς denotes a subjective cause ('under the impression that, on the pretext that').

ὄντος, the participle van εἰμί, may be omitted if the genitive absolute is accompanied by a particle, .

Varia

These genitive absolutes are usually not anticipated by a signal word, unlike other causative satellites. 200614 608 genitive,participle,ὡς,οἷος, οἵα, οἷον,ἅτε cause
615 Genitive absolute: condition as a satellite satellite The genitive absolute, often preceded by the negation μή, signals a condition as a satellite. The subject of the genitive absolute is never the same as that of the main clause (so coreferential situations are impossible).

1

ὡς ἡδὺ τὸ ζῆν μὴ φθονούσης τῆς τύχης

‘How pleasant it is to be alive when fate bears no malice.’ (Men. Mon. 563) 200615 608 genitive,participle condition
616 Genitive absolute: concession as a satellite satellite The genitive absolute, often preceded by περ or καίπερ (or καί or καίτοι), signals a concession as a satellite.

1

ὅμως δὲ καίπερ τοιούτων ὄντων πειρατέον διαιτᾶν ἕκαστα εἰς δύναμιν.

‘Still, even if the situation is as it is, I have to judge the details to the best of my ability.’ (Strab. 12.8.7)

Syntactic usage

ὄντος, the participle van εἰμί, may be omitted if the genitive absolute is accompanied by a particle.

Historical background

In Homer and tragic texts καί … περ is sometimes separated by the participle or by a word connected with it.

Indicators

The predicate of the sentence to which a concessive genitive absolute belongs is often accompanied by adverbs such as ὅμως, εἶτα, ἔπειτα, ἔμπας or οὕτως. 200616 608 genitive,participle concession
617 Accusative absolute : concession, cause, time satellite A participle in the accusative, of which the subject is not coreferential with another constituent, signals a satellite. This construction is called the accusative absolute or accusativus absolutus.Accusative absolutes generally express the semantic role concession; also sometimes cause or time.

2

δῆλον γὰρ ὅτι οἶσθα μέλον γέ σοι

‘It was obvious you know because it was your concern.’ (Plat. Apol. 24d)

Lexical usage

Present active (or middle) participle: most common

γενόμενον ἐπ' ἐμοί ‘because/although/when it was in my power’, δέον ‘… it is necessary’, δοκοῦν ‘… it is approved’, ἐξόν ‘… it is possible’, μέλον ‘… it is a source of care’, μεταμέλον ‘… it is a cause for regret’, παρέχον ‘… it is in one's power’, παρόν, μετόν, πρέπον, προσῆκον ‘… it is seemly’

Aorist active participle: rare

δόξαν (or δόξαντα) ‘because/although/when it seems good’, παρασχόν ‘… it is in one's power’, τυχόν ‘… it chances to happen’ → ‘by chance’

Passive participle: especially perfect

ἀμεληθέν ‘because/although/when it is neglected’, ἀπορρηθέν ‘… it is forbidden’, γεγραμμένον ‘… it is written’, δεδογμένον ‘… it seems (good)’, εἰρημένον ‘… it is said’, καταχειροτονηθέν ‘… it is voted on by a show of hands’, κῡρωθέν ‘… it is approved, ὁρισθέν ‘… it is divided’, περανθέν, χρησθέν ‘… it is needed’, προσταχθέν, προστεταγμένον ‘… it is enjoined’

Adjective with ὄν

δυνατὸν ὄν ‘because/although/when it is possible’, δίκαιον ὄν ‘… it is justified’ etc.

Syntactic usage

Two cases are possible:

• impersonal verbs and expressions, invariably in the neuter singular and usually with an infinitive as subject (= the most common construction);
• personal verbs, usually accompanied by ὡς or ὥσπερ, and with a subject in the accusative.

Note that the modality and the temporal meaning of accusative absolutes is neutralised. This means that the present παρέχον and the aorist παρασχόν are interchangeable.

Historical background

Although this construction is traditionally known as the accusativus absolutus, synchronically speaking (at least in the case of impersonal participles) it might also be called the nominativus absolutus: in the neuter there is no formal distinction (Buijs 2014). The choice for the label of accusative is based on the consideration that the participle in these constructions probably began as a modifier or as an apposition with the object of the main clause. An example of this would be: προσταχθὲν αὐτοῖς οὐκ ἐτόλμησαν εἰσαγαγεῖν (Isaeus 1.22) 'They did not dare to carry him in, although this was commanded them.'
The accusative absolute occurs from the 5th century B.C. onwards.

Frequency

The accusative absolute is very rare: in the first two books of Thucydides it occurs only 10 times (0,38 % of all participles - Coppieters, apud Duhoux). In Isocrates the proportion is similarly low: 0,39 % of participles (Dupuis, apud Duhoux). 200617 accusative,participle cause,impersonality
621 τοῦ with infinitive: goal as satellite satellite τοῦ with the infinitive (or accusativus cum infinitivo) signals a goal as a satellite.

3

μέλλει γὰρ Ἡρώδης ζητεῖν τὸ παιδίον τοῦ ἀπολέσαι αὐτό.

‘Herod intended to seek the child and kill it.’ ( Matthew 2.13)

Historical background

This construction occurs from Thucydides onwards. The choice for a genitive to express goal is unexpected, which seems to suggest that some form of ellipsis is involved. Duhoux suspects that the use of the genitive derives from constructions with verbs and nouns of ‘trying’, ‘longing’ or ‘striving’. According to Smyth the origin is probably to be found in the genitive of cause, considering that in some cases cause and goal are closely related: ἡ πᾶσ᾽ ἀπάτη συνεσκευάσθη τοῦ περὶ Φωκέᾱς ὀλέθρου (Dem. 19.27) ‘The whole fraud was contrived for the purpose of bringing the Phocians to ruin.’

Frequency

Most grammars see this construction as typical of Thucydides. Other classical authors tend to opt for ὑπέρ or ἕνεκα with an infinitive and an article. In the New Testament this construction also occurs 35 times. 200621 579 article ὁ, ἡ, τό,infinitive goal
622 Infinitive with epistemic modality subject,direct object,subordinate clause The declarative infinitive signals a patient as an argument (subject or object). This is the case with verbs of saying and supposing.

1

καὶ μηδεὶς ὑπολάβῃ με δυσκόλως ἔχειν

‘And nobody should think that I am hard to please.’ (Isoc. 4.129)

Lexical usage

Verbs of saying

ἀρνέομαι ‘to deny’, ἐπαγγέλλομαι, ὑπισχνέομαι ‘to promise’, λέγω ‘to say’, μαρτυρέω ‘to testify’, ὄμνυμι ‘to swear’, ὁμολογέω, συγχωρέω ‘to admit’, φάσκω, φημί ‘to claim’ etc.

Verbs of supposing

δοκέω, ἡγέομαι, νομίζω, οἴομαι ‘to deem, find’, εἰκάζω ‘to guess’, ἐλπίζω ‘to hope, expect’, κρίνω ‘to judge’, πέπεισμαι ‘to be convinced’, πιστεύω ‘to trust’, προσδοκάω ‘to expect’, ὑποπτεύω ‘to suspect’ etc.

Syntactic usage

Subject in case of coreference

When the subject of the main verb and that of the infinitive are identical, the infinitive is used on its own; when the subjects differ, the subject of the infinitive is put in the accusative case (accusativus cum infinitivo).

The expression of temporality

Since it stands in the place of the indicative in direct speech, this infinitive expresses time. This means that the aorist infinitive always refers to the past. The future infinitive only occurs as a declarative infinitive and never as a dynamic infinitive.

The particle ἄν

The particle ἄν can stand with the declarative infinitive, in contrast to the dynamic infinitive (since the latter is deontic). The context must decide whether the intended modality is possibility or counterfactuality, since due to the use of the infinitive in indirect speech it is formally impossible to tell whether an optative or a secondary indicative was used in direct speech.

The negation: usually οὐ

As a rule the negation is οὐ, although μή sometimes replaces οὐ if the main verb implies a wish or expresses determination. This is the case, for instance, after an imperative (e.g. νόμιζε μηδὲν βέβαιον εἶναι ‘Assume that nothing is stable.’).

Varia

The use of tenses and moods

When the main verb is in the aorist the infinitive has the tendency to take the aorist too. This tendency is reversed if the main verb is in the optative. A main verb in the perfect is usually followed by a present infinitive. 200622 infinitive patient,declarative clause,tense,verbs of saying,verbs of thinking
641 Imperative in subordinate clause: command (in drama) direct object,subordinate clause,indirect discourse,parenthesis In dramatic texts the imperative sometimes occurs in a subordinate clause. It is not clear whether the 'main verb' is parenthetic or not.

4

ἀλλ’ οἶσθ’ ὃ δρᾶσον; τῷ σκέλει θένε τὴν πέτραν

‘’ (Aristoph. Birds 54)

Syntactic usage

In an indirect question the imperative (usually δρᾶσον or ποίησον 'do!') is often preceded by οἶσθα; 'do you know?' or οἶσθ' ὅ 'do you know what...?' According to Rijksbaron the original function of οἶσθ' ὅ can be compared with an advisory 'Do you know what?' 200641 imperative interrogative clause
648 Infinitive: idiomatic disjunct disjunct Certain idiomatic infinitives signal a disjunct. Their semantic roles are very diverse. [If the semantic role is that of instrument, the infinitive is usually preceded by ὡς.]

1

παῦσαι τὸ νῦν εἶναι μεμφόμενός μοι

‘Stop finding fault with me immediately.’ (Xen. Cyrop. 5.5.35)

Lexical usage

An overview with an indication of frequency:
Verbs of ‘speaking’:

• ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν, ὡς εἰπεῖν 'that is to say, one might almost say' (>100)
• (ὡς) ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν, ὡς συνελόντι εἰπεῖν, ὡς ἐν βραχεῖ / διὰ βραχέων εἰπεῖν, ὡς συντόμως εἰπεῖν ‘in a word, in short’ (>50)
• ὡς ἐπὶ πᾶν εἰπεῖν, τὸ σύμπαν εἰπεῖν, ὡς ἐν κεφαλαίῳ εἰπεῖν, ὡς δὲ καθόλου εἰπεῖν, ὡς τύπῳ εἰπεῖν ‘generally speaking’ (>20)
• σχεδὸν (ὡς) εἰπεῖν ‘one might almost say, nearly (Latin: paene dixerim)’ (>10)
• σὺν θεῷ εἰπεῖν ‘for God's sake’

The above expressions are not only used with εἰπεῖν, but also with λέγειν, φράζειν and εἰρῆσθαι (e.g. ὡς ἐν τύπῳ εἰρῆσθαι ‘in general’).
The copula εἶναι (which is never declined further):

• ἑκὼν (declinable) εἶναι ‘willingly, voluntarily’ (usually in the context of a negation) (>30)
• τὸ κατὰ τοῦτον (or ἐπὶ τούτῳ) εἶναι ‘as far as he is concerned’
• ὡς . . . εἶναι ‘as far as ... is concerned’
• τὸ νῦν εἶναι ‘at this moment’

Other verbs:

• (ὡς) ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν, ὡς ἐμοὶ κρῖναι ‘as it seems to me, in my opinion’ (>50; almost exclusively in Pausanias)
• ὀλίγου (δεῖν), μῑκροῦ (δεῖν) ‘almost, practically, as good as’ (>50)
• (ὡς) εἰκάσαι ‘presumably, apparently’
• (ὡς) συμβάλλειν ‘by way of comparison’
• (ὡς) ἀκοῦσαι ‘from what I hear’
• ὅσον γέ μ᾽ εἰδέναι ‘as far as I known’
• ὡς ὑπομνῆσαι ‘to return to’

Historical background

According to Eduard Bornemann and Ernst Risch this use of the infinitive has its origin in the meanings of the dative.

Frequency

The frequencies in the above overview were calculated on the basis of Perseus under Philologic. 200648 infinitive,ὡς manner,phraseology
660 Prepositions with the accusative: direction satellite A direction is signalled mainly by the prepositions εἰς, ἐπί, παρά, πρός and ὡς with the accusative.

1

ἐπὶ τὰ δεῖπνα τῶν φίλων βραδέως πορεύου, ἐπὶ δὲ τὰς ἀτυχίας ταχέως

‘Go slowly to your friends' banquets, but swiftly to their misfortune.’ (Stob. Flor. 3.1.172)

Lexical usage

The prepositions ἐπί, κατά and πρός 'to' are not terminative, i.e. they do not imply that the objective of the motion has been reached, in contrast to prepositions such as εἰς 'into'.

Simple direction

- εἰς (into, inside, to);
- ἐπί, πρός (to ; ἐπί sometimes also 'onto');
- παρά, ὡς (to ).

Complex direction

- ἀμφί (to both sides of);
- ἀνά (onto);
- κατά (underneath);
- μετά (between); [in epic and late poetry]
- μέχρι (up to);
- ὑπέρ (beyond, over]); [rare after Homer]
- ὑπό (underneath, behind). 200660 preposition with the accusative,preposition ἀνά,preposition κατά,preposition εἰς,preposition πρός,preposition παρά,preposition ἐπί,preposition ὑπό,preposition ὡς,preposition ὑπέρ,preposition μετά,preposition ἀμφί,preposition μέχρι direction
661 Prepositions with the genitive: source satellite The prepositions ἀπό, παρά and ἐκ with the genitive signal a source or distance.

1

ἀπ᾽ ἐχθρῶν δῆτα πολλὰ μανθάνουσιν οἱ σοφοί

‘Wise man certainly learn a lot from their enemies.’ (Aristoph. Birds 376)

Lexical usage

Ultimate, sometimes distant source:

• ἀπό (from, away from); [unspecified point of departure]
• παρά (from [someone]). [no direct contact]

Direct source with which one is in contact:

• ἐκ (from out, out); [specified point of departure]
• πρός (from before [animate beings]). [direct contact]

Source from above or below an element (rare after Homer):

• κατά (from ... downwards, down along ... );
• ὑπό (from below).

200661 preposition κατά,preposition πρός,preposition παρά,preposition ἐκ,preposition with the genitive,preposition ὑπό,preposition ἀπό source,verbs of depriving
662 Prepositions with the accusative: spatial extension satellite Various prepositions with the accusative signal a spatial extension.


διὰ τὸ μέγεθος τῆς εὐημερίας ἀποδοχῆς ἐτύγχανεν οὐ μόνον παρὰ τοῖς πολίταις, ἀλλὰ καὶ καθ' ὅλην τὴν Σικελίαν.

Because of the enormous success he was received enthusiastically not only by his own citizens, but throughout in Sicily.

Diod. 11.25.5

μόλις ἄν σου ὑπήκουσα εἰ παρὰ τὴν θάλασσαν ἔμελλες πεζεύειν καὶ μὴ παρὰ τὴν γῆν πλεῖν.

I would almost have accepted your suggestion, if you had intended to walk over the sea instead of sail along the coast. [παρά is used in two different meanings here]

Ath. 12.521

διόπερ εὐθέως τὰ μέγιστα τῶν ἐθνῶν, τό τε τῶν Ἰνσόμβρων καὶ Βοίων, συμφρονήσαντα διεπέμποντο πρὸς τοὺς κατὰ τὰς Ἄλπεις καὶ περὶ τὸν Ῥοδανὸν ποταμὸν κατοικοῦντας Γαλάτας.

For this reason the two largest tribes, the Insubres and the Boii, made a treatu and sent messengers to the Galates, who lived in the Alps and on the Rhone.

Plb. #

τῶν δὲ νεῶν ἄφνω καθιζουσῶν ἐπὶ ξηρὰν τὴν γῆν, οἱ μὲν Αἰγύπτιοι καταπλαγέντες ἐγκατέλιπον τοὺς Ἀθηναίους.

When the ships suddenly came to a standstil on dry land, the alarmed Egyptians left the Athenians.

Diod. 11.77.3

1


τὸ μὲν λαιὸν εἶχον ὁπλῖται Ῥωμαίων μύριοι, παρὰ τὸν ποταμὸν αὐτόν

‘The left flank was formed by Roman legionaries, as many as ten thousand, along the river.’ (App. Syr. 31)


Lexical usage

TBX - ἀμφί (on both sides, along); - κατά (down along; together with... , following...;
- ἀνά (up along; spread over, in); - [poet.] μετά (past... , through... );
- [poet.] διά (through... , in the middle of); - παρά (beside, along; past);
- περί (around);
- ἐπί (over); - ὑπέρ (over).

200662 preposition with the accusative,preposition ἀνά,preposition κατά,preposition εἰς,preposition παρά,preposition ἐπί,preposition διά,preposition περί,preposition ὑπέρ,preposition μετά,preposition ἀμφί space, distance, and path
664 Prepositions with the accusative: beneficiary/malefactive satellite Prepositions with the accusative, especially εἰς and πρός, signal a beneficiary or malefactive.


ἡδέως μὲν ἔχε πρὸς ἅπαντας, χρῶ δὲ τοῖς βελτίστοις

Be friendly to all people, but associate with the best of them. ֍

Isoc. 1.20

ἐν τῇ ὦν παρελθούσῃ εὐεστοῖ ὁ Κροῖσος τὸ πᾶν ἐς αὐτὸν ἐπεποιήκεε

During his past prosperity Croisus had done everything for him.

Hdt. 1.85.1

γαλαῖ ποτ' εἶχον καὶ μύες πρὸς ἀλλήλους ἄσπονδον ἀεὶ πόλεμον

The weasels and the mice waged an incessant war with each other. ֍

Babrius #

ἀλλ' ἴωμεν ἐπὶ τοὺς πολεμίους.

But let us march up against the enemy. ֍

X. Cyrop. #

2


πρὸς υἱὸν ὀργὴν οὐκ ἔχει χρηστὸς πατήρ

‘A good father harbours no anger against his son.’ (Men. Mon. 451)


Lexical usage

The preposition πρός 'against' mostly occurs with verbs of fighting. The context must determine whether the prepositional phrase with πρός is a beneficiary or a malefactive.
Less frequent are διά, ἐπί and ὑπέρ. 200664 preposition with the accusative,preposition εἰς,preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition ὑπέρ beneficiary / malefactive
665 Prepositions with the genitive: beneficiary and malefactive satellite The following prepositions with the genitive signal a beneficiary or malefactive:

• [beneficiary] πρό and ὑπέρ (less frequently ἕνεκα, ἐπί, κατά and πρός);
• [malefactive] ἀντί and κατά (less frequently ἐπί).

Καλλίας μὲν δοκεῖ μοι μάλα πρὸς Πρωταγόρου εἶναι

I think Callias is more on the side of Protagoras. ֍

Plat. Prot. 336d

μάχεσθαι χρὴ τὸν δῆμον ὑπὲρ τοῦ νόμου ὅκωσπερ τείχεος

A people must fight for its law as for its city wall.

Heraclit. Fr. (Diels-Kranz) 44

ἐκεῖνοι πάντες ἀξιώσουσι σὲ πρὸ ἑαυτῶν βουλεύεσθαι .

They will all expect that you act as a counsellor to them.

Xen. Cyrop. 1.43

ταῦτα πράττειν αὐτοῖς ἐκείνοις παρέδωκεν ἐν πάνυ βραχεῖ χρόνῳ κατὰ τῶν πολεμίων.

For she instructed them to undertake this against the enemy in a short space of time.

Plb. 2.4

1


παῦσαι δὲ λύπης τῶν τεθνηκότων ὕπερ

‘Stop weeping for the dead.’ (Eur. Andr. 1234)


Historical background

The use of these prepositions has a double origin:

1. expressions of direction (‘in the direction of’ → ‘to the (dis)advantage of’);

expressions of source (‘from the perspective of’ → ‘to the advantage of’).

200665 preposition κατά,preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition with the genitive,preposition ὑπέρ,preposition πρό,preposition ἀντί,postposition ἕνεκα beneficiary / malefactive
666 Prepositions with the dative: companion satellite The prepositions ἅμα, ὁμοῦ and σύν with the dative signal a companion.

1

συνέρχονται πανταχόθεν ἄνδρες ὁμοῦ γυναιξὶν ἐπὶ τὴν ἑορτήν

‘The men come to the feast from everywhere with the wives.’ (Strab. 12.3.36)

Lexical usage

With verbs of fighting (πολεμέω, μάχομαι etc.) σύν + dat. indicates a comrade-in-arms or ally.
When rules or laws are involved, σύν also signifies agreement (‘conforming to’, ‘equal to’). 200666 preposition with the dative,preposition σύν,preposition ἐν,preposition ἅμα companion
668 Prepositions with the accusative: manner satellite The prepositions ἀνά, κατά and παρά with the accusative signal a manner.

2

ἡ εὐδαιμονία ἄρ᾿ ἂν εἴη ἐν τῷ κατὰ τὰς ἀρετὰς ζῆν

‘Pleasure would consist in living in accordance with virtue.’ (Aristot. Eth. Mag. 1.4.3)

Lexical usage

Less frequent are ἀμφί, διά, εἰς, περί and πρός.
Idiomatic expressions:

• εἰς in idioms expressing intensity or degree (εἰς καλόν ‘at the right moment’, εἰς δέον ‘rightly’, εἰς τάχος ‘quickly’, εἰς δύναμιν ‘to the best of one's ability’);
• καθ’ ἡσυχίαν ‘in silence’, κατὰ κράτος ‘with all one's might, with all their strength’, κατ' ἐμέ ‘in my opinion’;
• παρά … ‘counter to … ’;
• πρὸς βίαν (= βιαίως) ‘with force’, πρὸς ὀργήν ‘full of anger, angrily’.

200668 preposition with the accusative,preposition ἀνά,preposition εἰς,preposition πρός,preposition παρά,preposition διά,preposition περί,preposition ἀμφί manner
669 Prepositions with the accusative: distributivity or frequency satellite The prepositions ἀνά and κατά with the accusative signal distributivity (per, by, for each) or frequency.

2

βελτίων καθ’ ἡμέραν ἔσται συγγιγνόμενος ἐκείνῳ

‘He will grow better every day he spends with him.’ (Plat. Prot. 318c)

Lexical usage

Less frequent are ἐπί and παρά.
The distributivity of ordinal numbers is usually expressed by ἀνά or κατά: καθ' ἔνα 'one by one', ἀνὰ δύο 'by two', κατὰ πέντε 'by five'.

Historical background

The distributive meaning is the only meaning ἀνά retains in Koine.

Varia

In contrast to Latin, Greek has no distributive numbers like singulī 'one each', bīnī 'two each' or trīnī 'three each'. The compounds of ordinals with συν- have the same meaning, but are very rare. 200669 preposition with the accusative,cardinal,preposition ἀνά,preposition κατά frequency,distributivity
672 Prepositions with the genitive: standard of comparison argument The prepositions ἀντί, ἐκ and πρό with the genitive signal a standard of comparison. Less frequent is περί.

3

μήτε παῖδας περὶ πλείονος ποιοῦ ... πρὸ τοῦ δικαίου

‘Don't value your children higher than justice, either.’ (Plat. Crito 54b)

Lexical usage

The preposition ἐκ is mainly used with verbs of evaluating, and is then translated 'on the basis of''.
The preposition περί only has this meaning in Homer and always signals a comparison with all possible standards of comparison ('...-er than all other...'). 200672 preposition with the genitive,preposition περί,preposition πρό,preposition ἀντί standard of comparison
673 Prepositions with the accusative: standard of comparison argument The prepositions παρά and πρός with the accusative signal a standard of comparison.

3

οὐδενὶ πλείω ἀγαθὰ ὑπάρχει πρὸς τὸ φιλοσοφῆσαι

‘Nobody possesses anything greater and better than philosophy.’ (Aristot. Protrep. B1)

Historical background

In Koine (though not in earlier or later Greek) ὑπέρ can also indicate the standard of comparison. 200673 preposition with the accusative,preposition παρά standard of comparison
674 Prepositions with the accusative: time satellite Prepositions with the accusative signal an approximate point in time.

2

ἡνίκα δ’ ἦν ἀμφὶ μέσας νύκτας, παρῆν Σεύθης ἔχων τοὺς ἱππέας

‘When it was around midnight Seuthes arrived with his horses.’ (Xen. Anab. 7.3.40)

Lexical usage

Apart from ἀμφί and περί (about, around), εἰς, πρός and ὑπό (by) are also used. 200674 preposition with the accusative,preposition εἰς,preposition πρός,preposition ὑπό,preposition περί,preposition ἀμφί time
675 Preposition ἐν with the dative: time frame satellite The preposition ἐν with the dative signals a time frame.

3

ἐν ἑβδομήκοντα ἔτεσιν οὐδὲν ἐξήμαρτεν εἰς ὑμᾶς

‘In seventy years he has not done you any wrong.’ (Lys. 20.10) 200675 preposition with the dative,preposition ἐν timeframe,telic aspect
676 Prepositions with the accusative: duration satellite The prepositions ἐπί and παρά with the accusative signal a duration.

1

νῦν δʼ, εἰ μένειν δεῖ, μίμνʼ ἐφʼ ἡμέραν μίαν

‘Now, if it is necessary, stay another day.’ (Eur. Med. )

Lexical usage

Less frequent are ἀμφί, ἀνά, διά (in poetry), εἰς, κατά and ὑπό. 200676 preposition with the accusative,preposition ἀνά,preposition κατά,preposition παρά,preposition ἐπί,preposition ὑπό,preposition διά,preposition ἀμφί duration
677 Prepositions with the genitive: intermediary satellite The preposition διά with the genitive signals an intermediary.

2

ἔπεμψα σοι ἐπιστολήν διά τοῦ ἀρτοκόπου.

‘I have delivered this letter to you via the baker.’ (Pap. )

Lexical usage

Less frequent (or poorly attested) are ἀπό, ἐκ and ὑπό. 200677 preposition ἐκ,preposition with the genitive,preposition ὑπό,preposition ἀπό,preposition διά intermediary
678 Preposition ὑπό with the dative: intermediary satellite The preposition ὑπό with the dative signals an intermediary. 4

εἴ χ’ ὑπὸ σοί γε θεὸς δαμάσῃ μνησῆρας ἀγαυούς

‘’ (Hom. Od. 19.496-470)

Historical background

This usage originates with Homer (and is largely restricted to Homer) 200678 preposition ὑπό,preposition with the dative intermediary
679 Prepositions with the genitive: place satellite A large number of prepositions with the genitive signal a specific place.

1

τὸ γὰρ ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τοῦ νήφοντος ἐπὶ τῆς γλώττης ἐστὶ τοῦ μεθύοντος

‘For that which is in the heart of the sober man lies on the tongue of the drunkard.’ (Plut. De Garr. 503f)

Lexical usage

TBX - ἀντί (opposite); [not classical] - μετά, μεταξύ (between);
- ἀπό (from); - περί (around); [Hom.]
- διά (through); - πρό (in front of);
- ἐκ (out of, out from); - πρός (at the side of, at the height of);
- ἐπί (on, on top of); [also in to rule over…] - ὑπέρ (above);
- κατά (underneath); - ὑπό (from underneath; under).

Historical background

Various ‘real’ prepositions give way to ‘false’ prepositions in the classical period, and certainly later, in the Koine period. Apart from the cases mentioned previously, new forms can be cited, such as:
TBX Classical preposition ‘False’ preposition in Koine
μετά [not classical] μεταξύ [already in classical Greek]
περί ‘around’ ἐπάνωθεν, ἀπάνωθεν, ὑπεράνω
πρό ‘in front of’ - πρό ἔμπροσθεν, ἐνάντιον, ἐνώπιον [already in classical Greek]
- ἀντικρύς, (κατ)έναντι, κατενώπιον, ἀπέναντι
ὑπέρ ‘above’ κυκλόθεν
ὑπό, κατά κάτω, ὑποκάτω [already in classical Greek]

200679 preposition κατά,preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition with the genitive,preposition ὑπό,preposition διά,preposition περί,preposition ὑπέρ,preposition πρό,preposition μετά,preposition ἀντί location
680 Prepositions with the accusative: place satellite A number of prepositions with the accusative signal a specific place.

2

καὶ τὸ μὲν πρῶτον ἐμάχοντο ταῖς σαρίσαις ὑπὸ γῆν.

‘First they fought under the ground with their lances.’ (Plb. )

Lexical usage

TBX - ἀμφί (around ); - παρά (next to, beside);
- ἀνά (above, on); - περί (around; in the proximity of);
- ἐπί (in, spread over); - πρός (past);
- κατά (on; at the height of, opposite); - ὑπέρ (over, past); [Hom.]
- μετά (between); [after Hom. only figuratively] - ὑπό (at the foot of; nearby).

200680 preposition with the accusative,preposition κατά,preposition παρά,preposition ὑπό,preposition περί,preposition ὑπέρ,preposition ἀμφί location
682 Prepositions with the accusative: goal satellite The prepositions εἰς, ἐπί and πρός with the accusative signal a goal.

3

πέμπειν ἐπὶ κατασκοπήν

‘to send for the purpose ofexploring’ (Xen. Cyrop. 6.2.9)

Lexical usage

Less frequent are διά, κατά, μετά (in epic and late poetry) and περί. 200682 preposition with the accusative,preposition κατά,preposition εἰς,preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition διά,preposition περί,preposition μετά goal
684 Preposition ἐπί with the dative: condition satellite The preposition ἐπί with the dative signals a condition.

2

καὶ ἐπὶ τούτοις ὠμόσθησαν οἱ ὅρκοι

‘And on those conditions the oaths were sworn.’ (Xen. Hell. 7.4.11) 200684 preposition ἐπί,preposition with the dative condition
686 Prepositions with the genitive: source in time satellite The prepositions εἰς and ἐπί with the genitive signal a source in time.

1

ἐγὼ τοίνυν ἐξ ἀρχῆς ὑμῖν ἅπαντα ἐπιδείξω τὰ ἐμαυτοῦ πράγματα.

‘’ (Lys. )

Lexical usage

- ἀπό, ἐκ 'since';
- πρό 'from before'.
From these prepositional phrases a number of conjunctions are derived, including ἀφ' οὗ and ἐξ οὗ ‘since’. 200686 preposition ἐκ,preposition with the genitive,preposition ἀπό,preposition πρό source,time
689 Prepositions with the accusative: cause satellite The preposition διά with the accusative signals a cause.

2

διὰ γυναικῶν ὕβρεις πολλαὶ τυραννίδες ἀπολώλασιν.

‘Through the outrageous behaviour of women many tyrannies have been overthrown.’ (Aristot. Pol. 5.1314b)

Lexical usage

Less frequently one also finds ἀμφί, κατά, παρά, περί and πρός.

Translation tips

‘because of’, ‘on the basis of’, ‘thanks to’, ‘in the light of’ 200689 preposition with the accusative,preposition κατά,preposition πρός,preposition παρά,preposition διά,preposition περί,preposition ἀμφί cause
690 Prepositions with the genitive: reference satellite The preposition περί with the genitive signals reference.

1

οἶδα γὰρ εὖ περὶ κείνου

‘For I know a lot about him.’ (Hom. Od. 17.563)

Lexical usage

Less frequent are ἀμφί, ἐπί, κατά (very rare), πρός and ὑπέρ. 200690 preposition κατά,preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition with the genitive,preposition περί,preposition ὑπέρ,preposition ἀμφί reference,verbs of perception
691 Prepositions with the accusative: reference satellite Some prepositions with the accusative, originally denoting direction (εἰς and πρός) or surroundings (περί and ἀμφί), signal reference.

3

ἀμφὶ τὴν κάμινον ἔχω τὰ πολλά.

‘Usually I occupy myself with my furnace.’ (Luc. Prom. 5)

Lexical usage

Less frequent are κατά, ἐπί, παρά, ὑπέρ. 200691 preposition with the accusative,preposition κατά,preposition εἰς,preposition πρός,preposition παρά,preposition περί,preposition ἀμφί reference
694 Prepositions with the dative: place satellite The prepositions ἐν, ἐπί, παρά and πρός with the dative signal a general place. Other prepositions are more specific in their semantics.

1

ἐν τυφλῶν πόλει γλαμυρὸς βασιλεύει

‘In the city of the blind the one-eyed man is king.’ (Schol. )

Lexical usage

TBX - ἀμφί (around, on both sides of); - παρά (beside);
- ἀνά (upon, on); [poetic, Ion. and Koine] - περί (round; beside, next to) [Hom., Hdt.]
- ἐν (in, on, among); - πρός (at, on; in);
- ἐπί (at, beside, close to, against, on); - ὑπό (under; at the foot of).
- μετά (beside, between); [Hom.]

200694 170 preposition ἀνά,preposition πρός,preposition παρά,preposition ἐπί,preposition ὑπό,preposition περί,preposition μετά,preposition with the dative,preposition ἐν,preposition ἀμφί location,toponym
695 Prepositions with the dative: reference satellite The preposition ἐν with the dative signals a reference.

4

ἦσαν ἐν Ὀλύνθῳ τῶν ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν τινὲς μὲν Φιλίππου καὶ πάνθ᾽ ὑπηρετοῦντες ἐκείνῳ, τινὲς δὲ τοῦ βελτίστου καὶ ὅπως μὴ δουλεύσουσιν οἱ πολῖται πράττοντες

‘’ (Dem. 9.56)

Lexical usage

Less frequent are ἀμφί (in poetry) and περί. 200695 preposition περί,preposition with the dative,preposition ἐν,preposition ἀμφί reference
697 Prepositions with the genitive: direction satellite Some prepositions with the genitive signal a direction.

3

ἐπὶ νηὸς ἔβαινε

‘He went on board.’ (Hom. Il. 13.665)

Lexical usage

- ἐπί (towards, in the direction of)
- κατά (down from ..., down along ... );
- πρός (to, up to);
- ὑπέρ (beyond, up to). 200697 preposition κατά,preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition with the genitive,preposition ὑπέρ direction,telic aspect
698 Prepositions with the genitive: agent satellite The preposition ὑπό with the genitive signals an agent.

1

καὶ γὰρ αὐτὸ ὑπὸ ἔρωτος τὸ ὕδωρ καίεται.

‘For even water is set ablaze by the fire of love.’ (Philostr. Letters 11)

Lexical usage

The construction involving ὑπό with the genitive can also indicate an instrument, if this instrument is conceived of as an agent.
Sometimes classical authors use other prepositions, depending on the meaning of the verb:

• ἐκ (Herodotus) or παρά (Attic) with ‘sending’ or ‘giving’;
• πρός (Herodotus) with 'thinking' or 'believing' (where Attic uses παρά with the dative).

Some writers have a very distinctive use of prepositions:

• Homer also has ἐκ or πρός with verbs of 'achieving' or 'reaching',
• Thucydides often uses ἀπό:
• with verbs such as λέγω to present two agents as being in opposition to each other;
• with verbs such as πράσσω to mark an indirect agent;
• Demosthenes often uses παρά;
• In Attic tragedy the monosyllabic prepositions ἐκ and πρός often occur under metric pressure;
• Bible translations such as the Septuagint sometimes use ἀπό to translate the Hebrew מִן min pr מֵא mē ('by', but also 'away from').

Historical background

From Homer until the 5th-6th century A.D. ὑπό with the genitive is the standard marker for the agent. After this period ὑπό is replaced by παρά in non-literary registers. From the twelfth century A.D. ἀπό gradually replaces παρά, to become the standard preposition in modern Greek. 200698 preposition πρός,preposition παρά,preposition ἐκ,preposition with the genitive,preposition ὑπό,preposition ἀπό agent
699 Prepositions with the genitive: cause satellite The postpositions ἕνεκα and χάριν with the genitive signal a cause.

2

τίνος μʼ ἕκατι γῆς ἀποστέλλεις, Κρέον;

‘For what reason do you expel me from the land, Creon?’ (Eur. Med. 269)

Lexical usage

Less frequently the prepositions ἀμφί, ἀντί, ἀπό (rare), ἐκ, ἐπί, πρός, ὑπέρ and ὑπό are used.

Historical background

Although ἀπό with this meaning is very rare in the classical period, in Koine its frequency increases considerably. 200699 preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition ἐκ,preposition with the genitive,preposition ὑπό,preposition ἀπό,preposition ὑπέρ,preposition ἀντί,preposition ἀμφί,postposition ἕνεκα,postposition χάριν cause
701 Prepositions with the dative: manner satellite The prepositions ἐπί and σύν with the dative signal a manner.

3

βακχείᾳ δ’ ἀνὰ συντόμῳ κέρασαν

‘’ (Eur. Ba. 126-127)

Lexical usage

Less frequent are ἀνά (in poetry) and ἐν (in expressions). Idiomatic expressions: σὺν δίκῃ ‘rightly’, σὺν κραυγῇ ‘with shouts’, σὺν πόνῳ ‘with difficulty’. 200701 preposition ἀνά,preposition ἐπί,preposition with the dative,preposition σύν,preposition ἐν manner
703 Prepositions with the genitive: means satellite The preposition μετά with the genitive signals an instrument; the preposition ἄνευ with the genitive signals the absence of an instrument.

2

οἱ γὰρ ἀοιδοὶ διὰ τῶν παλαιῶν ἱστοριῶν τοὺς ἀκούοντας ἐσωφρόνιζον

‘Singers call their audience to their senses through the use of age-old stories.’ (Scholia )

Lexical usage

To a lesser extent ἀπό, διά and ἐκ are also used.

Translation tips

TBX - ἀπό, διά, ἐκ, μετά (with);
- ἄνευ (without).

200703 preposition ἐκ,preposition with the genitive,preposition ἀπό,preposition διά,preposition ἄνευ,preposition μετά instrument
704 Prepositions with the genitive: duration satellite The preposition διά with the genitive signals a duration.

2

ἡμεῖς δ’ αὖ διὰ παντὸς τοῦ βίου ἀεὶ γέμομεν ἐλπίδων;

‘Are we always full of hope all our lives?’ (Plat. Phileb. 39e)

Lexical usage

Rarer is ἐπί; κατά is very rare. 200704 preposition ἐπί,preposition with the genitive,preposition διά duration
706 Prepositions with the genitive: manner satellite The prepositions ἀπό, διά, ἐπί and μετά with the genitive signal a manner; the preposition ἄνευ with the genitive signals the absence of a manner.

2

φιλοκαλοῦμέν τε γὰρ μετ' εὐτελείας καὶ φιλοσοφοῦμεν ἄνευ μαλακίας

‘We cultivate refinement without extravagance and knowledge without effeminacy.’ (Thuc. )

Lexical usage

Less frequent are ἐκ, κατά, πρός, ὑπέρ and ὑπό
Some idiomatic expressions:

• ἀπὸ τοῦ ἴσου ‘equally, on a par with’;
• ἐκ τοῦ ἴσου ‘equally, on a par with’;
• διὰ τάχους ‘quickly’;

Translation tips

TBX - ἀπό, διά, ἐκ, ἐπί, κατά, μετά, πρός (in ... way, like); - ὑπό (under);
- ὑπέρ (above, exceeding ); - ἄνευ (without).

200706 preposition κατά,preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition ἐκ,preposition with the genitive,preposition ὑπό,preposition ἀπό,preposition διά,preposition ἄνευ,preposition ὑπέρ,preposition μετά manner
709 Prepositions with the dative: goal satellite The prepositions ἀμφί (in poetry), ἐπί and πρός with the dative signal a goal.

4

ἦν ὅλος πρὸς τῷ λήμματι

‘’ (Dem. 19.127) 200709 preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition with the dative,preposition ἀμφί goal
710 Preposition πρός with the genitive: experiencer satellite The preposition πρός with the genitive signals an experiencer.

4

τοῦτον ἂν τὸν τρόπον ἐξελοίμεθα ὃς μόνος μὲν πρὸς θεῶν ἀσεβής, μόνος δὲ πρὸς ἀνθρώπων αἰσχρός;

‘’ (Xen. Anab. 2.5.20)

Lexical usage

From the Koine period onwards ἐνώπιον 'in the eyes of' + gen. comes into general use. 200710 preposition πρός,preposition with the genitive experiencer
711 Prepositions with the genitive: companion satellite The prepositions μετά and ὑπό with the genitive signal a companion; the prepositions ἄνευ and χωρίς with the genitive signal the absence of a companion.

2

τὸ καθεύδειν μετὰ γυναικῶν νυκτὸς ἔργον ἐστίν

‘Sleeping with women is night work.’ (Scholion op Lykophron )

Lexical usage

With a verb of fighting (πολεμέω, μάχομαι etc.) μετά + gen. indicates a comrade-in-arms or ally.

Translation tips

TBX - μετά (with);
- ὑπό (accompanied by);
- ἄνευ (without).

200711 preposition with the genitive,preposition ὑπό,preposition ἄνευ,preposition μετά companion
712 satellite

4 200712 preposition ἐπί,preposition with the genitive,preposition περί,preposition ὑπέρ,preposition ἀμφί,postposition ἕνεκα,postposition χάριν goal
713 Prepositions with the genitive: spatial extension satellite The preposition διά with the genitive signals a spatial extension.

2

διὰ τῆς χώρας ἄξεις ἡμᾶς

‘You will lead us through your country.’ (Xen. Cyrop. 5.2.21)

Lexical usage

TBX - διά (through, from one side to the other); - πρός (along, past);
- ἐπί (over); - ὑπέρ (over). [mainly poetic]

200713 preposition πρός,preposition ἐπί,preposition with the genitive,preposition διά,preposition ὑπέρ space, distance, and path
714 Prepositions with the accusative: degree/measure satellite The prepositions ἐπί, παρά and ὑπέρ with the accusative signal a degree or measure.

3

τότε μὲν οὖν ἐπὶ πολὺ ἐδακρύομεν

‘Then we began to shed many tears.’ (Luc. VH 1.32)

Translation tips

- ἐπί (up to … , as far as … );
- παρά (with a … margin);
- ὑπέρ (more than). 200714 preposition with the accusative,preposition παρά,preposition ἐπί,preposition ὑπέρ degree / measure
716 Prepositions with the dative: agent satellite The prepositions παρά and ὑπό with the dative signal an agent, at least in some authors.

3

ὑπὸ παιδοτρίβῃ ἀγαθῷ πεπαιδευμένος

‘trained by a good teacher’ (Plat. Lach. 184e)

Lexical usage

Historical background

Homer uses ὑπό with the dative in the same contexts as the dative of the agent, i.e. with a limited group of verbs, of which δάμνημι ‘to overpower’ is the most important. In an attempt to imitate Homer, later epic writers (such as Apollonius of Rhodes, Quintus or Nonnus) avoid the genitive with ὑπό and prefer the dative. 200716 preposition παρά,preposition ὑπό,preposition with the dative agent
717 Prepositions with the dative: cause satellite The preposition ἐπί with the dative signals a cause.

2

οὐ μετρίως ἐπὶ τούτοις ἀγανακτῶ καὶ πίμπραμαι.

‘This enraged and infuriated me not a little.’ (Luc. Jud. Voc. )

Lexical usage

Less frequent are ἀμφί (in poetry), ἐν and περί.

Historical background

In the Greek of Bible translations ἐν ‘because of’ is more common under influence of Hebrew. Hebrew uses בְּ /bə/ for ‘with’ (instrument) or ‘through’ (cause) as well as for ‘in’ (place).

Varia

The preposition περί with the dative mainly expresses cause (according to Luraghi reference) with verbs of ‘fearing’ or of ‘fighting’, while the preposition ἐπί often occurs with verbs of (positive or negative) emotion. 200717 preposition ἐπί,preposition περί,preposition with the dative,preposition ἐν,preposition ἀμφί cause
719 Prepositions with the genitive: value/price satellite The prepositions ἀντί and περί with the genitive signal a value in fixed expressions.

2

οὐ περὶ πολλοῦ ποιοῦμαι χρήματα

‘I do not attach much importance to money.’ (Lys. 32.13)

Lexical usage

This usually concerns phraseological expressions, such as περὶ πολλοῦ ποιέομαι 'to esteem' or περὶ ὀλίγου ποιέομαι 'to despise'. The predicate is usually a verb of ‘regarding’ or ‘esteeming’. Less frequent are διά, ἐπί and πρό. 200719 preposition ἐπί,preposition with the genitive,preposition διά,preposition περί,preposition πρό,preposition ἀντί value / price,phraseology
721 Prepositions with the genitive: time satellite The preposition ἐπί with the genitive signals a point in time. Less frequent are ἐκ (poetic) and μετά (very rare).

4

ὥστ᾽ οὔτε νυκτὸς ὕπνον οὔτ᾽ ἐξ ἡμέρας | ἐμὲ στεγάζειν ἡδύν

‘’ (Soph. El. 780-781)

Lexical usage

Some fixed expressions: ἐκ νυκτῶν ‘during the night watch’, ἐπὶ τῶν προγόνων ‘in the time of our ancestors’ etc. 200721 preposition ἐπί,preposition ἐκ,preposition with the genitive,preposition μετά,preposition ἀμφί time
722 Prepositions with the genitive: that by which one swears extra-clausal constituent The prepositions κατά and πρός with the genitive signal the person or object by which one swears an oath.

3

ἀτὰρ σὺ τί θηρίον ποτ’ εἶ πρὸς τῶν θεῶν;

‘And what kind of an animal are you, by the gods?’ (Aristoph. Birds 69)

Translation tips

‘by’, ‘in the name of’ 200722 preposition κατά,preposition πρός,preposition with the genitive exclamation,asseveration / imprecation
723 Prepositions with the accusative: companion The prepositions κατά and πρός signal a companion (more specifically in agreement).

4

κατὰ τοὺς νόμους

‘’ (Dem. 8.2)

Lexical usage

The names of the gospels: Εὐαγγέλιον κατὰ Ματθαῖον, Μάρκον, Λουκᾶν, Ἰωάννην. 200723 preposition with the accusative,preposition κατά,preposition πρός companion
724 Prepositions with the dative: beneficiary and malefactive satellite The preposition ἐπί with the dative signals a malefactive or, less frequently, a beneficiary.

4

ἡ ἐπὶ τῷ Μήδῳ ξυμμαχίᾱ

‘’ (Thuc. 3.63)

Lexical usage

This mostly involves fixed expressions:

• beneficiary: ἐπ’ ἀγαθῷ ‘for the good’, ἐπ’ εὐνοίᾳ ‘for benevolence’, ἐπὶ κέρδει ‘for the benefit’, ἐπὶ ὠφελείᾳ ‘in the advantage’;
• malefactive: ἐπὶ ζημίᾳ ‘at the expense’, ἐπὶ βλάβῃ ‘to the detriment’, ἐπὶ κακῷ ‘in the disadvantage’.

200724 preposition ἐπί,preposition with the dative beneficiary / malefactive
725 Preposition ἐπί with the dative: value/price satellite The preposition ἐπί with the genitive signals a value or price.

4

ἀλλ’ ἔγωγ’ Ὀπούντιος | οὐκ ἂν γενοίμην ἐπὶ ταλάντῳ χρυσίου

‘But I would not (want to) become an Opuntian even for a talent of gold.’ (Aristoph. Birds 153-154) 200725 preposition ἐπί,preposition with the dative value / price
726 Prepositions with the dative: time satellite The preposition ἐν with the dative signals a point in time.

1

ἐν τούτῳ δὲ τῷ καιρῷ αἱ μὲν κύνες προσκείσονται

‘At that moment the dogs will start attacking.’ (Xen. Hunt. 10.10)

Lexical usage

TBX - ἐν, ἀμφί (in, on);
- ἐπί (close to, by, on).

Varia

In poetry ἀμφί is also found; in Herodotus ἐπί is often used. 200726 preposition ἐπί,preposition with the dative,preposition ἐν,preposition ἀμφί time
727 Preposition ἐπί with the dative: frequency The preposition ἐπί with the dative signals frequency. 4

πεντήκοντα δὲ καὶ ἑκατὸν στάδια ἐπ’ ἡμέρῃ ἑκάστῃ διεξιοῦσι

‘’ (Hdt. 5.53) 200727 preposition ἐπί,preposition with the dative frequency
728 Prepositions with the dative: instrument satellite The preposition σύν with the dative signals an instrument.

3

οἱ μὲν οὐδέπω μακρὰν | πτέσθαι σθένοντες, οἱ δὲ σὺν γήρᾳ βαρεῖς, | ἱερῆς…

‘’ (Soph. OT 16-18)

Lexical usage

Less frequent are ἀμφί (in Pindar), ἐν and ὑπό.

Historical background

In the Greek of Bible translations ἐν 'with' occurs more often under influence of Hebrew. This is because Hebrew uses בְּ /bə/ both for 'in' (place) and for 'with' (instrument) or 'because of' (cause). However, it is incorrect always to regard ἐν as a calque, because it occurs in classical Greek with means of transport and parts of the body. 200728 preposition ὑπό,preposition with the dative,preposition σύν,preposition ἐν,preposition ἀμφί instrument
730 Prepositions with the accusative: companion satellite The prepositions ἀμφί and περί with the accusative signal a companion, more specifically someone belonging to the same group or community.

2

ὧδε μὲν ὁ Ἀντώνιος τοῖς ἀμφὶ τὸν Πινάριον ἀπεκρίνατο.

‘Thus Anthony answered Pinarius and his company.’ (App. BC 3.3.22) 200730 preposition with the accusative,preposition περί,preposition ἀμφί companion
735 Infinitive with preposition and article satellite The infinitive, preceded by a preposition and an article, signals a satellite. The semantic role of the satellite depends on the meaning of the preposition in question.

1

εἰρώτα τὸν Δημάρητον ὁκοῖόν τι εἴη τὸ ἄρχειν μετὰ τὸ βασιλεύειν

‘[The new Spartan king] asked Demaretus what it was like to fulfil a function after the kingship.’ (Hdt. 6.67.2)

Lexical usage

Some common combinations:

• cause: διὰ τό (less often: ἐκ τοῦ) with the infinitive;
• goal: ὑπὲρ τοῦ, τοῦ ... ἕνεκα (less often: ἐπὶ τό or πρὸς τό) with the infinitive.

Syntactic usage

Note that an infinitive with an article does not lose any of its verbal characteristics: it can be accompanied by a subject (in the accusative), objects and adverbials: τὸ ἀποδιδόναι τὰς ἐπιστόλας = ἡ τῶν ἐπιστολῶν ἀπόδοσις.

Historical background

Prepositions are used with the infinitive with the article from the classical period onwards (Sophocles [497/6–406] according to Bornemann-Risch 1978, Aeschylus [525/4–456/5] according to Duhoux 2000, Herodotus [ca. 485–424] according to Luraghi 2014). This completes the evolution to a full noun. 200735 579 article ὁ, ἡ, τό,infinitive,preposition διά,preposition ὑπέρ,postposition ἕνεκα,preposition cause,goal
739 οὐ μή with future indicative in main clause: strong negation main clause,insubordination The future indicative, preceded by οὐ μή, signals a strong negation in the future.

3

οἵ γε Ἀρμένιοι οὐ μὴ δέξονται τοὺς πολεμίους.

‘The Armenians will never withstand their enemies.’ (Xen. Cyrop. 3.2.8)

Historical background

This construction is equivalent in meaning to οὐ μή + aorist subjunctive, and probably originates from it. The change to the future indicative is accounted for by morphological motivations (the similarity between the aor. subj. and the fut. ind.) as well as by semantic motivations (the similarity between the plausible modality and the future tense).

Frequency

This relatively rare construction, which occurs almost exclusively in the first and third persons, occurs several times in the New Testament, Xenophon and the tragic writers. 200739 549 ellipsis,future stem,indicative,οὐ μή negation
740 οὐ μή with future indicative in interrogative main clause: strong prohibition main clause,insubordination The future indicative (second person) in an interrogative main clause, preceded by οὐ μή, signals a strong prohibition.

2

ποῖος Ζεύς; οὐ μὴ ληρήσεις; οὐδ’ ἔστι Ζεύς.

‘What do you mean, Zeus? Don't talk nonsense! Zeus doesn't exist.’ (Aristoph. Cl. 367)

Translation tips

Although the usual translation involves the imperative mood, an English interrogative clause can also have imperative or prohibitive force: Will you be quiet?

Syntactic usage

After a prohibition with οὐ μή and a fut. ind. a commanding fut. ind. may follow, connected to the prohibition by ἀλλά or δέ.

Frequency

This construction is typical of dramatic writers.

Varia

Rarely an aorist subjunctive is used. Many editors replace this with a future indicative. Most grammarians regard these sentences as interrogative sentences, although of course there is no evidence for this from the manuscripts. The ancients did not write question marks. This is why Goodwin chooses not to use a question mark. 200740 741 future stem,οὐ μή interrogative clause,deontic modality,prohibition
741 οὐ with future indicative in interrogative main clause: strong command main clause The future indicative in an interrogative main clause, preceded by οὐ, signals a strong (urgent, threatening, ironic) command.

2

οὗτος, οὐ μενεῖς;

‘You there, stay here!’ (Aristoph. Birds 354)

Translation tips

Although the usual translation involves the imperative mood, an English interrogative sentence can also have imperative or prohibitive force: Will you be quiet? 200741 740 future stem,οὐ (negative particle) interrogative clause,imperative clause
742 Future indicative in main clause: strict command main clause The (perfect) future indicative can signal a strict command.

3

ἴθ’, οὐ φονεύσεις παῖδ’ ἐμόν, λίπε χθόνα.

‘Go, leave this country; you shall not murder my son!’ (Eur. Phoen. 1682)

Syntactic usage

When preceded by οὐ or μή it signals a strict prohibition (unless in a question). 200742 future stem,future perfect indicative deontic modality,prohibition,imperative clause
745 ὅτι or ὡς with the moods of the main clause: indirect speech subject,direct object,subordinate clause,indirect discourse A subordinate clause expressing indirect speech, introduced by ὅτι or ὡς, signals a subject or object with verbs of saying (except for φημί), perception and emotion.

1

δῆλον ὅτι καὶ ἐσμὲν ἕνεκα τοῦ φρονῆσαί τι καὶ μαθεῖν

‘It is clear that we exist to think and to learn.’ (Aristot. Protrep. B17)

Syntactic usage (not possible optativus obliquus)

The tenses and moods are the same as those of an independent clause.

Difference between ὅτι and ὡς

The conjunction ὅτι (also ὁτιή in Homer) carries an objective nuance: the speaker has his information from someone else. As a result ὅτι sometimes has the same force as our speech marks: often the indirect speech retains not only the tense and the mood of the direct speech but also the person.
The conjunction ὡς - in contrast to ὅτι - has a subjective nuance: the speaker has ascertained the information himself. 200745 indicative,ὡς,ὅτι patient,declarative clause,objective vs. subjective,verbs of perception,verbs of saying,verbs of feeling
747 μή with subjunctive: argument with verbs of fearing direct object,subordinate clause A subordinate clause in the subjunctive without ἄν, introduced by μή, signals a cause as object (or subject) with verbs of fearing.

1

διὸ δέδοικα μὴ καὶ περὶ ἐμὲ συμβῇ τι τοιοῦτον.

‘This is why I fear that a similar criticism can be applied to myself.’ (Isoc. 12.75)

Lexical usage

δέδοικα ‘to be afraid, fear’, εὐλαβέομαι ‘to be careful’, ὑποπτεύω ‘to suspect’, φοβέομαι ‘to fear’ (also with ind., often perf., for a fact in the past), φροντίζω ‘to worry’, φυλάττομαι ‘to be on one's guard’ etc.

Translation tips

The normal translation is a subordinate clause, introduced by that. Sometimes, however, it is better to use an indirect question in the translation: φροντίζω μὴ κράτιστον ᾖ μοι σῑγᾶν ‘I am reflecting whether it might not be best for me to be silent.’

Syntactic usage (not possible optativus obliquus)

If the main clause uses a primary tense the subordinate clause usually contains a subjunctive. After a past (or historic) tense there are various possibilities, but the subjunctive is usually replaced by an oblique optative. If there is a subjunctive anyway it represents the fear in a lively way, as though it were being experienced by the speaker.
Sometimes ὅπως μή is used instead of μή.

Historical background

The subordinate clause with verba timendi probably has its origin in a coordinated construction. The subjunctive is thought to have signalled a (negated) wish. The future main clause, then, expressed the frame of mind of the speaker: ‘I am afraid. May that not happen!’ becomes ‘I am afraid that that will happen.’

Frequency

Very rarely (only six classical examples) ὅπως μή is used with the future indicative. 200747 subjunctive,μή (negative particle) cause,verbs of fear
748 ὅπως (ὡς, ἵνα) with indicative future: argument with verbs of caring direct object,subordinate clause A subordinate clause in the indicative future (or subjunctive), introduced by ὅπως (ὡς is rare; ἵνα very rare), signals a goal as a subject or an object with verbs meaning 'to exert oneself,' 'to strive,' 'to see to it' or 'to commend'.

2

ἐσκόπει ὁ Μενεκλῆς ὅπως μὴ ἔσοιτο ἄπαις

‘Menekles strived not to remain childless.’ (Isaeus 2.10)

Lexical usage

Verbs of taking care

ἐπιμελέομαι, ἐπιμέλομαι, μέλει μοι ‘to take care that’, εὐλαβέομαι, ὁράω, σκοπέω, φροντίζω, φυλάττομαι ‘to see to it that’, μηχανάομαι ‘to contrive that’, παρασκεύαζομαι ‘to get ready to’, ποιέω ‘to bring about that’, σκεπτέον ἐστι ‘it should be seen to that’, σπεύδω ‘to exert oneself to’ etc.

Verbs of wanting (rare)

Verbs of wanting with meanings such as ‘to ask’, ‘to order’, ‘to enjoin’, ‘to exhort’ or ‘to forbid’, which usually take an infinitive as their object, sometimes take ὅπως (ὅπως μή) with the future indicative or the subjunctive.

Historical background

This construction seems to have originated from the coordination of a first main clause with a verb of caring and a second main clause, introduced by ὅπως or ὡς, with a future indicative. The original construction, therefore, must have meant something like: ‘I see to it. Thus it will happen.’, later reinterpreted as: ‘I see to it that it will happen.’

Indicators

An object clause expressing a goal can be anticipated by τοῦτο or τούτου in the main clause. This signal word can distinguish this object clause from an adverbial final clause.

Frequency

Frequencies of the use of tenses in the classical period (Amigues, apud Duhoux):

• indicative future: 67,9 %
• subjunctive without ἄν (analogous to the adverbial clause): 17,0 %
• subjunctive with ἄν (plausible modality): 6,1 %
• (oblique) optative: 7,2 %
• optative (possibly modality): 1,5 %
• infinitive: 0,3 %

Varia

The indicative future is usually retained after historic tenses. Nevertheless Xenophon in particular regularly opts for the (oblique) optative future.
A subjunctive is also possible, with the same force as the future indicative. When the subjunctive (or, after historic tenses, the oblique optative) is used, the clause in question is actually a final clause. This is particularly frequent in Xenophon.
The negation is usually ὅπως μή, but sometimes also μή, as in adverbial final clauses. 200748 indicative,ὅπως,future indicative goal,verbs of effort
749 ὅπως with indicative future in main clause: urgent hortation main clause,insubordination A main clause in the indicative future, preceded by ὅπως (or, rarely, ὡς), signals an urgent hortation. This construction is typical of spoken language.

2

ἀλλ’ ὅπως ἀνὴρ ἔσῃ

‘Come on, be a man.’ (Eur. Cycl. 595)

Lexical usage

In the classical period only the conjunctions ὅπως and, less frequently, ὡς are used. In other periods ἵνα also occurs.

Syntactic usage

The indicative future is the most usual construction; in rare cases the subjunctive may also occur.

Historical background

This construction is typical of late Ionic and Attic texts, particularly when spoken language is being presented.
This use of ὅπως can be explained as the result of an elliptic construction: '[See to it] that ...' (Greek: σκόπει (σκοπεῖτε), ὅρᾱ (ὁρᾶτε)); '[Watch out] that ... not ...'

Frequency

The construction with the future indicative occurs around eighty times, while the construction with the subjective only occurs six times (Amigues, apud Duhoux). 200749 748 future stem,indicative,subjunctive,ὅπως,ὡς,ἵνα imperative clause
750 μή with a mood other than the subjunctive: object with verbs of fearing direct object,subordinate clause A subordinate clause in the indicative (usually the perfect indicative) without ἄν, introduced by μή, signals a causative object with verbs of fearing when the object of fear is in the past and thus can no longer be changed.In general, a large variety of verbal forms may be used after historical tenses, all of which can be explained in terms of their own (aspectual and temporal) meaning. => realis, potential (with ἄν), counterfactual 3

δέδια, μὴ λελήθασιν ἡμᾶς οἱ πολέμιοι περιστάντες

‘I am afraid that our enemies are surrounding us unawares.’ (J. AJ 18.320)

Translation tips

The usual translation is a subordinate clause, introduced by 'that'. However, it is sometimes preferable to use an indirect question in translation: ὁρῶμεν μὴ Νῑκίᾱς οἴεταί τι λέγειν 'Let us see if Nicias thinks he is talking sense.'

Syntactic usage

Sometimes ὅπως μή is used instead of μή.

Frequency

[based on perseus under philologic: very rare] 200750 747 indicative,μή (negative particle) cause,verbs of fear
752 ὥστε (or ὡς) with the infinitive: result clause satellite,subordinate clause The infinitive, preceded by ὥστε (sometimes ὡς), signals a possible result as a satellite. The speaker does not explicitly state whether the result is actually fulfilled or not. The result often has an additional nuance of purpose or of condition.

1

χαλεπὸν γὰρ οὕτω τι ποιῆσαι ὥστε μηδὲν ἁμαρτεῖν

‘For whatever one does, it is difficult to avoid mistakes.’ (Xen. Mem. 2.8.5)

Lexical usage

Translation tips

Because of this it is often possible to use the auxiliary 'can' in the translation of result clauses.

Syntactic usage

Sometimes the infinitive is accompanied by ἄν to put additional emphasis on the possible modality.

Historical background

The conjunctions ὡς and ὥστε (sometimes transcribed as ὥς τε in Homer) go back to the adverb ὡς ‘thus, in that way’, sometimes followed by an ‘epic τε’. The infinitive would then have functioned as a type of apposition.
Until the end of the sixth century B.C. the construction with the infinitive is the only possible construction. This means that the markedly subjective force of the infinitive emerged only later. 200752 infinitive,ὡς,ὥστε result
753 ὥστε (or ὡς) with the moods of the main clause: result clause satellite,subordinate clause A subordinate clause with the moods of the main clause, introduced by ὥστε (sometimes ὡς), signals a result as a satellite.By using a finite subordinate clause, the speaker usually represents the result as a fact. However, the indicative is not the only mood which is used: the optative with ἄν expresses a possible result, the secondary indicative with ἄν a counterfactual result.

1

εἰς τοσοῦτόν εἰσι τόλμης ἀφιγμένοι ὥσθ’ ἥκουσιν ἀπολογησόμενοι.

‘And their boldness is such that they have come here to defend themselves.’ (Lys. 12.22)

Historical background

The construction involving ὥστε (or ὡς) with a finite subordinate clause occurs from the fifth century B.C. onwards; before that the infinitive was much more common. The steady increase in the use of the finite result clause goes hand in hand with the emergence of the finite object clause at the expense of the accusativus cum infinitivo. 200753 ὡς,ὥστε result
754 ὥστε en ἐπεί with a main clause main clause,insubordination Besides introducing subordinate clauses, the conjunctions ὥστε and ἐπεί can also introduce a main clause. In these cases these subordinating conjunctions function as coordinating conjunctions with a resultative or causal meaning, respectively (οὖν or γάρ, respectively).

2

ἐπεὶ βούλεσθε πλείον’ εἴπω;

‘For what do you think, shall I say more?’ (Aristoph. Thesm. 553)

Translation tips

ὥστε is best translated ‘consequently’, ‘so’ or ‘thus’, while ἐπεί is best translated ‘because’ or 'for that reason'.

Syntactic usage

The main clause is often imperative or interrogative.
200754 ὥστε,ἐπεί cause,result
758 πρίν with infinitive: posteriority (‘before’) satellite,subordinate clause The infinitive, preceded by πρίν ‘before’, signals posteriority as a satellite. The main clause is usually affirmative.

1

πρὶν ἀλέκτορα φωνῆσαι τρὶς ἀπαρνήσῃ με.

‘Before the cock has turned three times, you will betray me.’ ( )

Lexical usage

Besides πρίν the following posterior conjunctions also exist: πρὶν ἤ, πάρος (Hom.), πρότερον ἤ and πρόσθεν ἤ ‘earlier than’.

Translation tips

When πρίν is used with the infinitive, only the translation 'before' is possible.

Historical background

In Homer (who also uses πάρος beside πρίν) the infinitive is the normal construction, whether the main clause is affirmative or negative.

Indicators

πρότερον or πρόσθεν can anticipate πρίν in the main clause, as can other adverbs, such as πάροιθεν. Attic also has the expression φθάνω ... πρίν. Even compound verbs with the prefix προ- can anticipate πρίν.
In Homer the identical adverb πρίν can serve as a signal word. 200758 infinitive,πρίν time,posteriority
762 conjunction with the moods of the main clause: causal clauses satellite,subordinate clause A finite subordinate clause introduced by one of the conjunctions below signals a cause as a satellite. The most common conjunctions are ὅτι, διότι, ὡς ‘because’, ἐπεί ‘since’, ἐπειδή ‘seeing that’, ὅτε, ὁπότε ‘since’.

1

πέποιθ᾿, ἐπεί τἂν οὐ μακρὰν ἔζων ἐγώ.

‘I believe it! For otherwise I would not have stayed alive for long.’ (Soph. El. 323)

Lexical usage

Most causal conjunctions can also be used with a different meaning. This formal correspondence illustrates the narrow relationship between the semantic role of cause and other roles such as source, time, goal or condition:

• [temporal] ὅτε, ὁπότε, ὁπηνίκα, ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ἐπείπερ, εὖτε (poetic and Ionic) 'now, considering that';
• [conditional] εἰ, ἐφ’ ᾧ, ἀνθ’ ὧν 'if, since';
• [comparative] ὡς (informal from the end of the 5th century), ὥς τε (twice in the Odyssey), ὅπως 'because, since';
• [place] ὅπου 'since, as';
• [source] ὅθεν 'since, as'.

Other conjunctions are also used in object clauses: ὅτι (or ὁτιή in Aristophanes), διότι, διόπερ 'because'. Moreover, the conjunction ὅ 'because' is a relative pronoun.
Finally, there are a few conjunctions which are exclusively causal: οὕνεκα of ὁθούνεκα (poetic), εἵνεκεν (Ionic) 'because'.

Syntactic usage (not possible optativus obliquus)

Usually a causal clause takes the indicative, because the cause of a state of affairs or an action usually exists in reality. This does not exclude the expression of possible causes (in the optative with ἄν – often with the force of a modest opinion) or counterfactual causes (in the secondary indicative with ἄν).
The oblique optative is possible. When the main clause contains an optative mood attraction can occur.

Indicators

Causal clauses are often anticipated in the main clause by διὰ ταῦτα / διὰ τοῦτο ‘for this reason’, τοῦδ’ ἕνεκα ‘for this reason’. A causative clause can also sometimes be used independently as the answer to a question introduced by τί; ‘why?’

Frequency

The most common conjunctions are ὡς, ἐπεί (with the derivation ἐπειδή and the Ionic variant ἐπείτε), ὅτι and to a lesser extent ὅτε (Rijksbaron 1976: 24). 200762 ὡς,ὅτι,mood attraction,ἐπεί,moods of the main clause cause
763 πρίν with indicative or subjunctive aorist with ἄν: posteriority (‘before’) satellite,subordinate clause The indicative or the aorist subjunctive with ἄν, preceded by πρίν (‘before’), signals posteriority as a satellite when the main clause is negated or has negative meaning. The indicative denotes a neutral event, the aorist subjunctive with ἄν denotes a plausible (one-off or repeatable) event.

1

μηδὲ δίκην δικάσῃς, πρὶν ἄμφω μῦθον ἀκούσῃς

‘Do not judge before you have heard the story of both parties.’ (Plut. )

Lexical usage

Besides πρίν the following posterior conjunctions also exist: πρὶν ἤ, πάρος (Hom.), πρότερον ἤ and πρόσθεν ἤ ‘earlier than’.

Translation tips

When πρίν is used with a finite verbal form the translations ‘before’ or ‘until’ are possible.

Indicators

πρότερον of πρόσθεν can anticipate πρίν in the main clause, as can other adverbs, such as πάροιθεν. Attic also has the expression φθάνω ... πρίν. Even compound verbs with the prefix προ- can anticipate πρίν.
In Homer the identical adverb πρίν can serve as a signal word.

Varia

In Attic only the conjunction πρίν ‘before’ can be used with the indicative or the subjunctive with ἄν. In Herodotus, however, πρὶν ἤ ‘sooner than’ also occurs in this construction. Outside Attic prose in particular, for example in Ionic texts, ἄν may be omitted. 200763 aorist stem,indicative,subjunctive,ἄν,πρίν epistemic modality,posteriority,time
765 εἰ with the indicative: neutral condition satellite,subordinate clause A subordinate clause in the indicative, introduced by εἰ, signals a neutral condition as a satellite. The indicative makes no statement on the attainability of the condition. In the main clause any mood or tense may be used.

1

εἰ δὲ σώζειν οὐ θέλεις, λάβε τὸ ξίφος.

‘If you do not want to let me live: here is the sword.’ (Philostr. 5)

Lexical usage

Conditional clauses usually take the indicative when the conditional nuance is very weak (often in complimentary phrases): εἰ βούλει ‘if you want to’, εἴ σοι φίλον ‘if it pleases you, please’, εἰ δοκεῖ ‘if it seems good to you’.

Varia

In traditional grammars the neutral condition is known as a realis. This is not an accurate term, since the speaker makes no statement on the factuality of the condition. 200765 indicative,εἰ condition,neutral modality
766 εἰ with optative: possible condition satellite,subordinate clause A subordinate clause in the optative, introduced by εἰ, signals a possible condition as a satellite. The main clause usually contains an optative with ἄν.

1

οὐδ᾽ ἂν βοῦς ἀπόλοιτ᾽, εἰ μὴ γείτων κακὸς εἴη.

‘If the neighbour was not bad, not so much as a cow would be lost.’ (Hes. WD 348)

Translation tips

English does not always make the distinction between a possible and a counterfactual condition. The choice between a conditional form (with the auxiliary 'would' or 'should') and a past tense is determined mainly by stylistic considerations.
If one wishes to express possibility in a more explicit way, the adverb 'ever' or the auxiliary 'should' can be added. Compare 'if I were rich...' to 'if I were ever to be rich...' or 'should I ever be rich...'

Syntactic usage

In epic texts the particle ἄν in the main clause may be omitted.

Historical background

Homer sometimes uses εἴ κε in the conditional clause, with the same meaning as εἰ.

Varia

Note that it is possible for the speaker to present a condition as possible, but at the same time not believe that it can ever be fulfilled.
In traditional grammars the possible condition is called potentialis. 200766 optative,εἰ possibility,condition
767 εἰ with secondary indicative: counterfactual condition satellite,subordinate clause A subordinate clause in a secondary tense of the indicative, introduced by εἰ without ἄν, signals a counterfactual condition as a satellite. The main clause usually contains the same secondary indicative with ἄν.

1

πλείονα δ᾿ ἂν ἔτι τούτων εἰρήκειμεν, εἰ πλείων παρῆν οἶνος ἡμῖν.

‘We should have discussed more than that, if we had had more wine.’ (Plut. Pyrrh. 8)

Lexical usage

If the speaker juxtaposes two conditions, he uses one of the two following constructions:

• (compatible with each other) εἴτε… εἴτε… ‘whether… or…’
• (excluding each other) εἰ μέν… εἰ δέ… ‘if… but if…’

Syntactic usage

The stems in the conditional clause only signify aspect, not time:

• present stem (for infective aspect);
• aorist stem (for confective aspect);
• perfect (for resultative aspect).

Historical background

In Homer counterfactual conditions are expressed in a different way:

• in the present: optative;
• in the past: secondary indicative.

Varia

In traditional grammars the counterfactual condition is called irrealis. 200767 indicative,εἰ past time,counterfactuality,condition
768 ἐάν (ἤν, ἄν) with the subjunctive: plausible condition satellite,subordinate clause A subordinate clause in the subjunctive, introduced by ἐάν (ἤν, ἄν), signals a plausible condition as a satellite.A condition ca